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Under the repressive regime of [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]] (c. [[1787]]-[[1797]]), much intellectual production came to be circulated in manuscript form. Anything discussing, let alone criticizing, the shogunate's policies would never pass the publishing guild censors, and could earn the author some serious punishments. [[Utamaro]] was among the most prominent ''ukiyo-e'' artists to fall victim to the censors. Placed under house arrest in [[1804]] and manacled, he never recovered, producing very little work afterwards, and dying just two years later. Fearful of the censors, many writers of political treatises and the like, instead of submitting works for publication, submit them directly to prominent or well-connected samurai officials, in the hopes of influencing policy in that manner.  

Under the repressive regime of [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]] (c. [[1787]]-[[1797]]), much intellectual production came to be circulated in manuscript form. Anything discussing, let alone criticizing, the shogunate's policies would never pass the publishing guild censors, and could earn the author some serious punishments. [[Utamaro]] was among the most prominent ''ukiyo-e'' artists to fall victim to the censors. Placed under house arrest in [[1804]] and manacled, he never recovered, producing very little work afterwards, and dying just two years later. Fearful of the censors, many writers of political treatises and the like, instead of submitting works for publication, submit them directly to prominent or well-connected samurai officials, in the hopes of influencing policy in that manner.  

Literacy among urban dwellers in the Edo period has been estimated at 80% for men, and 50% for women.<ref>Passin, Herbert. ''Society and Education in Japan''. New York: Teachers College Press, 1965. p57.</ref>

Literacy among urban dwellers in the Edo period has been estimated by some scholars at 80% for men, and 50% for women;<ref>Passin, Herbert. ''Society and Education in Japan''. New York: Teachers College Press, 1965. p57.</ref> including both urban and rural populations across the entire archipelago, the male literacy figures may have been closer to 40-50%.<ref>Schirokauer, et al. ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 137.</ref>

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