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''Nihonga'' (lit. "Japan pictures" or "Japanese painting") is a term applied broadly to Japanese paintings of the [[Meiji period]] and onwards which employ traditional media and techniques. Also called "neo-traditional" painting, the term ''Nihonga'', along with the movement or genre itself, emerged around the 1880s as a reaction against the prominence of ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting) and the decline of traditional modes of painting. The style has been described as "modernist," and combines elements of the style and techniques of [[Rinpa]], [[Kano school|Kanô school]], [[Tosa school]], ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', [[literati painting]], and other traditional painting schools with elements of Western technique and style including perspective, shading and modeling, attention to light sources and shadow, the absence of outline, and a degree of realism or naturalism, in compositions which most often feature traditional subjects or themes. Works are done not in oils, acrylics, pencil, charcoal, or other Western media, but in ink and colors on paper or silk, on hanging scrolls, handscrolls, folding screens, or other traditional formats. Gold and silver foil, mica, and other such materials employed by Rinpa, Kanô, and ''ukiyo-e'' artists are also sometimes used.

''Nihonga'' (lit. "Japan pictures" or "Japanese painting") is a term applied broadly to Japanese paintings of the [[Meiji period]] and onwards which employ traditional media and techniques. Also called "neo-traditional" painting, the term ''Nihonga'', along with the movement or genre itself, emerged around the 1880s as a reaction against the prominence of ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting) and the decline of traditional modes of painting. The style has been described as "modernist," and combines elements of the style and techniques of [[Rinpa]], [[Kano school|Kanô school]], [[Tosa school]], ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', [[literati painting]], and other traditional painting schools with elements of Western technique and style including perspective, shading and modeling, attention to light sources and shadow, the absence of outline, and a degree of realism or naturalism, in compositions which most often feature traditional subjects or themes. Works are done not in oils, acrylics, pencil, charcoal, or other Western media, but in ink and colors on paper or silk, on hanging scrolls, handscrolls, folding screens, or other traditional formats. Gold and silver foil, mica, and other such materials employed by Rinpa, Kanô, and ''ukiyo-e'' artists are also sometimes used.

Galleries in Japan, artists' groups, and painters themselves continue to apply the term ''Nihonga'' to works produced today, and indeed ''Nihonga'' painters today continue to be commissioned to create works for traditional contexts. For example, the temples of [[Kennin-ji]] and [[Kencho-ji|Kenchô-ji]] employed painter Koizumi Junsaku to create dragon paintings for their ceilings in 2000-2002.<ref>Takahashi Tomoko. "[http://www.i-sys.info/serial/interview/14/interview14.html Interview]. Webmagazine i-sys (アイシス). 14 January 2005. (Translation by [[User:LordAmeth]] available [http://chaari.wordpress.com/2009/03/09/koizumi-junsaku-interview/ here].)</ref> The period from roughly the 1880s to 1930s, however, can be discussed as the real core period of the development of ''Nihonga'', with the question of what constitutes ''Nihonga'' in the post-war period becoming much more contested and debatable, as many artists begin to experiment and to deviate further from either traditional themes and subjects or traditional media and techniques.

Galleries in Japan, artists' groups, and painters themselves continue to apply the term ''Nihonga'' to works produced today, and indeed ''Nihonga'' painters today continue to be commissioned to create works for traditional contexts. For example, the temples of [[Kennin-ji]] and [[Kencho-ji|Kenchô-ji]] employed painter Koizumi Junsaku to create dragon paintings for their ceilings in 2000-2002.<ref>Takahashi Tomoko. "[http://www.i-sys.info/serial/interview/14/interview14.html Interview]. Webmagazine i-sys (アイシス). 14 January 2005. (Translation by [[User:LordAmeth]] available [http://chaari.wordpress.com/2009/03/09/koizumi-junsaku-interview/ here].)</ref> The period from roughly the 1880s to 1930s, however, can be discussed as the real core period of the development of ''Nihonga'', with the question of what constitutes ''Nihonga'' in the post-war period becoming much more contested and debatable, as many artists begin to experiment and to deviate further from either traditional themes and subjects or traditional media and techniques.

''Nihonga'' emerged out of a reaction against movements to fully embrace Western painting styles and techniques as part of the surge towards modernity, discarding traditional Japanese painting as non-modern, as backwards and as being "of the past."

''Nihonga'' emerged out of a reaction against movements to fully embrace Western painting styles and techniques as part of the surge towards modernity, discarding traditional Japanese painting as non-modern, as backwards and as being "of the past."

It is important to note, however, that a great many artists produced works in both the ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' modes, studying in one first before switching to the other, or dabbling simultaneously in both. This was a time when the art world was highly politicized, with rivalries between Tokyo and Kyoto, and between various factions within both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'', but the rivalry between ''yôga'' and ''Nihonga'' was not such that artists could not have feet in both, especially in the 20th century, after the initial battles over the direction "modern" Japanese art would take had passed.

It is important to note, however, that a great many artists produced works in both the ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' modes, studying in one first before switching to the other, or dabbling simultaneously in both. This was a time when the art world was highly politicized, with rivalries between Tokyo and Kyoto, and between various factions within both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga''; art historian [[Ellen Conant]] has argued that the efforts of Fenollosa and Okakura polarized unnecessarily,<ref>Conant. p14.</ref> an influence that lasted at least until [[1907]], when Okakura served as a judge at the first [[Bunten|Ministry of Education Juried Exhibition]]. Yet, at the same time, many artists still had their feet in both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' circles, or practiced one before switching to the other.

It is also important to note that it was certainly not the case that schools of traditional painting had died out or stopped entirely at this time, or that Kanô, Rinpa, Tosa, ''ukiyo-e'', and literati painters had put down their brushes to pick up Western-style brushes for oils. Despite the rapid and dramatic changes the country had seen since the opening of ports to the West in [[1854]], and the [[Meiji Restoration]] in [[1868]], all of these schools, and others, continued, many of them as vibrant as ever, showing little or no discontinuities or shocks from the developments of these decades. Kanô and literati artists, and others with strongly artistically conservative foundations, especially those based in and around Kyoto, and those with strong connections to the kind of patrons, such as temples, which demanded traditional style artworks, were shielded to some extent from the rapid changes going on in Tokyo, and in less traditional sectors of society. Many of these artists also found work through commissions from the government, or in working at museums, including on conservation efforts.

It is also important to note that it was certainly not the case that schools of traditional painting had died out or stopped entirely at this time, or that Kanô, Rinpa, Tosa, ''ukiyo-e'', and literati painters had put down their brushes to pick up Western-style brushes for oils. Despite the rapid and dramatic changes the country had seen since the opening of ports to the West in [[1854]], and the [[Meiji Restoration]] in [[1868]], all of these schools, and others, continued, many of them as vibrant as ever, showing little or no discontinuities or shocks from the developments of these decades. Kanô and literati artists, and others with strongly artistically conservative foundations, especially those based in and around Kyoto, and those with strong connections to the kind of patrons, such as temples, which demanded traditional style artworks, were shielded to some extent from the rapid changes going on in Tokyo, and in less traditional sectors of society. Many of these artists also found work through commissions from the government, or in working at museums, including on conservation efforts.

Most of the most prominent ''Nihonga'' artists traveled, studied, and showed abroad. To name just a few examples, Kanô Hôgai's "Kannon as Merciful Mother" was shown at the Paris Salon in 1883, and Yokoyama Taikan and [[Hishida Shunso|Hishida Shunsô]] traveled to India in [[1903]] and to Europe and the US afterward, while [[Shimomura Kanzan]] studied in England, funded by the Ministry of Education.

Most of the most prominent ''Nihonga'' artists traveled, studied, and showed abroad. To name just a few examples, Kanô Hôgai's "Kannon as Merciful Mother" was shown at the Paris Salon in 1883, and Yokoyama Taikan and [[Hishida Shunso|Hishida Shunsô]] traveled to India in [[1903]] and to Europe and the US afterward, while [[Shimomura Kanzan]] studied in England, funded by the Ministry of Education.

Some famous paintings of this period include the hanging scroll landscape "White Clouds, Red Leaves" (1890) by Hashimoto Gahô and "Fallen Leaves" (1909) by Hishida Shunsô, a pair of two-panel folding screens (''[[byobu|byôbu]]''), both of which display traditional themes in traditional formats in traditional media, with a combination of new, Western techniques and stylistic elements with those taken from the Kanô, Rinpa, and other schools. Yokoyama Taikan's "Floating Lights" (1909), a hanging scroll painting in mineral pigments on silk, employs traditional ''[[bijinga]]'' conventions to depict a scene in India, featuring Indian women in Indian garments (albeit with very pale faces and Japanese-looking features).  

Some famous paintings of this period include the hanging scroll landscape "White Clouds, Red Leaves" (1890) by Hashimoto Gahô and "Fallen Leaves" (1909) by Hishida Shunsô, a pair of two-panel folding screens (''[[byobu|byôbu]]''), both of which display traditional themes in traditional formats in traditional media, with a combination of new, Western techniques and stylistic elements with those taken from the Kanô, Rinpa, and other schools. Yokoyama Taikan's "Floating Lights" (1909), a hanging scroll painting in mineral pigments on silk, employs traditional ''[[bijinga]]'' conventions to depict a scene in India, featuring Indian women in Indian garments (albeit with very pale faces and Japanese-looking features).  

===The Second Generation: 1910s-1930s===

===The Second Generation: 1910s-1930s===

After Okakura's death in 1913, Yokoyama, Shimomura, and a number of other artists took over as the leaders of the movement in Tokyo, revitalizing the ''Nihon Bijutsu-in'' and organizing, briefly, annual juried exhibitions known as the [[Inten]].

After Okakura's death in 1913, Taikan, Shimomura Kanzan, and a number of other artists took over as the leaders of the movement in Tokyo. With Gahô and Shunsô also having died by this time, Taikan lost influence, and was expelled from the jury of the Bunten in 1914. Revitalizing the ''Nihon Bijutsu-in'', he and his fellows then organized, alternative annual juried exhibitions known as the [[Inten]].

 

The Bunten, as it continued, brought visibility and popularity to ''Nihonga''; by the 10th annual exhibition in 1916, the Bunten saw nearly 250,000 attendees, and many sales, not only to some small select group of collectors, but more widely and more popularly. However, the exhibitions (renamed Teiten, or "Imperial Exhibitions" in 1919), remained highly political, and conservative, rejecting works that were too progressive, experimental, or creative, as well as those by artists outside of the circles of the judges; many judges gave preference to their own students. While the Teiten did continue to serve an important role in maintaining a degree of visibility for, and popular interest in, ''Nihonga'', by serving as ''the'' national exhibition, pretending to be open to all and to represent all factions while actually being highly political and biased, the Teiten, like the Bunten before it, actually exacerbated factional rivalries, such as those between the Tokyo School of Fine Arts, the Japan Art Institute, and the [[Japan Art Association]] (''Nihon Bijutsu Kyôkai'').

[[Yasuda Yukihiko]], along with [[Imamura Shiko|Imamura Shikô]] and a number of others, meanwhile, founded a group known as the [[Kojikai|Kôjikai]]<!--紅児会--> sometime in the first decade of the 1900s, which, along with the ''Nihon Bijutsu-in'', with which there was little or no rivalry, served as the focus of the movement for a time. [[Maeda Seison]] and [[Kobayashi Kokei]], who joined this society in 1907 and 1901, respectively, represent two other particularly prominent members of this second generation of ''Nihonga'' painters.

[[Yasuda Yukihiko]], along with [[Imamura Shiko|Imamura Shikô]] and a number of others, meanwhile, founded a group known as the [[Kojikai|Kôjikai]]<!--紅児会--> sometime in the first decade of the 1900s, which, along with the ''Nihon Bijutsu-in'', with which there was little or no rivalry, served as the focus of the movement for a time. [[Maeda Seison]] and [[Kobayashi Kokei]], who joined this society in 1907 and 1901, respectively, represent two other particularly prominent members of this second generation of ''Nihonga'' painters.

''Nihonga'' paintings of this period, as of the previous period, vary widely in their subjects, and to a great extent in their style as well. While one of Imamura Shikô's more famous works depicts scenes in the tropics (based on a trip to India in 1914) on a handscroll in a lighter palette and a style resembling literati painting more closely than anything else, works such as "[[Byodoin|Amidadô]]" (1915) by Kobayashi Kokei and "[[Minamoto no Yoritomo|Yoritomo]] in a Cave" (1929) by Maeda Seison employed bold colors to depict historical scenes and sites.

''Nihonga'' paintings of this period, as of the previous period, vary widely in their subjects, and to a great extent in their style as well. While one of Imamura Shikô's more famous works depicts scenes in the tropics (based on a trip to India in 1914) on a handscroll in a lighter palette and a style resembling literati painting more closely than anything else, works such as "[[Byodoin|Amidadô]]" (1915) by Kobayashi Kokei and "[[Minamoto no Yoritomo|Yoritomo]] in a Cave" (1929) by Maeda Seison employed bold colors to depict historical scenes and sites.

This period saw a great boom of interest among the painters (and more widely) in historical fashions, ancient treasures, and the like. Many artists traveling in the West, or in Kyoto and Nara, studied great treasures of the past, including profoundly famous and art historically significant Chinese works, and Japanese works which had been inaccessible either because of their location overseas, or secreted away in temples, shrines, or other private collections. One example of a famous work studied and copied by ''Nihonga'' artists at this time is the so-called "Admonitions Scroll" attributed to Gu Kaizhi (c. 344 - c. 406), acquired by the British Museum in 1903, which Kobayashi Kokei and Maeda Seison studied and copied on a trip to London in 1922. Works such as Maeda Seison's "Yoritomo in a Cave" and "Falling Flowers"<!--落花--> (1904) by [[Kikuchi Keigetsu]]<ref>Szostak, John. "[http://szostak-nihonga-research.blogspot.com/ Kikuchi Keigetsu 菊池契月 "Falling Flowers" 落花, 1904]." Nihonga Research (blog). 28 September 2010.</ref> reveal extensive familiarity with the details of armor and other military accouterments of the time of the [[Genpei War]] (1180s).

This period saw a great boom of interest among the painters (and more widely) in historical fashions, ancient treasures, and the like. Many artists traveling in the West, or in Kyoto and Nara, studied great treasures of the past, including profoundly famous and art historically significant Chinese works, and Japanese works which had been inaccessible either because of their location overseas, or secreted away in temples, shrines, or other private collections. One example of a famous work studied and copied by ''Nihonga'' artists at this time is the so-called "Admonitions Scroll" attributed to Gu Kaizhi (c. 344 - c. 406), acquired by the British Museum in 1903, which Kobayashi Kokei and Maeda Seison studied and copied on a trip to London in 1922. [[Kawabata Ryushi|Kawabata Ryûshi]], meanwhile, sometime around 1913-14, visited the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]], where a great many treasures of Japanese art collected by Fenollosa and Okakura, including the [[Kamakura period]] handscroll painting of "The Siege of the [[Sanjo Palace|Sanjô Palace]]", were now held. Works such as Maeda Seison's "Yoritomo in a Cave" and "Falling Flowers"<!--落花--> (1904) by [[Kikuchi Keigetsu]]<ref>Szostak, John. "[http://szostak-nihonga-research.blogspot.com/ Kikuchi Keigetsu 菊池契月 "Falling Flowers" 落花, 1904]." Nihonga Research (blog). 28 September 2010.</ref> reveal extensive familiarity with the details of armor and other military accouterments of the time of the [[Genpei War]] (1180s).

 

 

While many artists continued to depict fully traditional (read: pre-Meiji) scenes, the 1920s saw a significant increase in the production of works depicting contemporary, modern life, and of portraits painted from life. [[Domoto Insho|Dômoto Inshô's]] "Hill" (1924) and [[Ikeda Yoson|Ikeda Yôson's]] "Snow in Osaka" (1928) are particularly well-known examples of this.

===Kyoto Nihonga===

===Kyoto Nihonga===

All in all, Kyoto saw far less cultural & social disruption in the 1850s-1870s than did Tokyo. As a result, the line between ''Nihonga'' and what came before is more blurred as it applies to Kyoto painters, many of whom are included among ''ukiyo-e'' artists (e.g. [[Kawanabe Kyosai|Kawanabe Kyôsai]]) or literati painters (e.g. [[Tomioka Tessai]]) in accounts of Edo period art, and also sometimes described as ''Nihonga'' artists. Similarly, literati painting in and around Kyoto is considered in some accounts to have continued straight into the 20th century; an exhibition entitled "Literati Modern" organized by the Honolulu Academy of the Arts included a great many artists who are commonly labeled as ''Nihonga'' artists.<ref>Berry, Paul and Michiyo Morioka (eds.) ''Literati Modern: Bunjinga from Late Edo to Twentieth-Century Japan''. Honolulu: Honolulu Academy of Arts, 2008.</ref>

All in all, Kyoto saw far less cultural & social disruption in the 1850s-1870s than did Tokyo. As a result, the line between ''Nihonga'' and what came before is more blurred as it applies to Kyoto painters, many of whom are included among ''ukiyo-e'' artists (e.g. [[Kawanabe Kyosai|Kawanabe Kyôsai]]) or literati painters (e.g. [[Tomioka Tessai]]) in accounts of Edo period art, and also sometimes described as ''Nihonga'' artists. Similarly, literati painting in and around Kyoto is considered in some accounts to have continued straight into the 20th century; an exhibition entitled "Literati Modern" organized by the Honolulu Academy of the Arts included a great many artists who are commonly labeled as ''Nihonga'' artists.<ref>Berry, Paul and Michiyo Morioka (eds.) ''Literati Modern: Bunjinga from Late Edo to Twentieth-Century Japan''. Honolulu: Honolulu Academy of Arts, 2008.</ref>

A leading figure in the emergence of ''Nihonga'' in Kyoto was [[Takeuchi Seiho|Takeuchi Seihô]], who studied under Maruyama-Shijô painter [[Kono Bairei|Kôno Bairei]] and who is perhaps best known for his "Moon Over Venice" (1904), which is done, of course, entirely in traditional materials and format (ink on paper hanging scroll), but in rather Western styles, the work resembling to a great extent depictions of the same site by the English painter J.M.W. Turner.

A leading figure in the emergence of ''Nihonga'' in Kyoto was [[Takeuchi Seiho|Takeuchi Seihô]], who studied under Maruyama-Shijô painter [[Kono Bairei|Kôno Bairei]] and who is perhaps best known for his "Moon Over Venice" (1904), which is done, of course, entirely in traditional materials and format (ink on paper hanging scroll), but in rather Western styles, the work resembling to a great extent depictions of the same site by the English painter J.M.W. Turner.

While many ''Nihonga'' artists in both Kyoto and Tokyo painted ''bijinga'' which depicted women in traditional clothing and settings, happy, demure, or more or less emotionless, many, such as [[Kajiwara Hisako]] and [[Kakiuchi Seiyo|Kakiuchi Seiyô]] were particularly innovative in depicting women in Western clothes and modern scenes, and showing emotions such as exhaustion, worry, and pensiveness. Many other ''Nihonga'' artists similarly portrayed aspects of modern life in their paintings as well; though the movement is defined by its use of traditional media and techniques and/or traditional themes and subjects, it is not strictly limited to the latter.

While many ''Nihonga'' artists in both Kyoto and Tokyo painted ''bijinga'' which depicted women in traditional clothing and settings, happy, demure, or more or less emotionless, many, such as [[Kajiwara Hisako]] and [[Kakiuchi Seiyo|Kakiuchi Seiyô]] were particularly innovative in depicting women in Western clothes and modern scenes, and showing emotions such as exhaustion, worry, and pensiveness. Many other ''Nihonga'' artists similarly portrayed aspects of modern life in their paintings as well; though the movement is defined by its use of traditional media and techniques and/or traditional themes and subjects, it is not strictly limited to the latter.

==References==

==References==