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*''Japanese'': 倭寇 ''(wakou)''
*''Japanese'': 倭寇 ''(wakou; C: wōkòu; K: waegu)''
The ''wakô'' were raiders, pirates, or brigands active in East Asian waters in the [[Kamakura period|Kamakura]] to early [[Edo period]]s, the phenomenon peaking in the 16th century (the late [[Muromachi period|Muromachi]] or [[Sengoku period]]). The term might be literally translated as "Japanese pirates," the ''wa'' (倭) denoting Japan, but many ''wakô'' were in fact Chinese.<ref name=arano186>Arano. p186.</ref>
The ''wakô'' were raiders, pirates, or brigands active in East Asian waters in the [[Kamakura period|Kamakura]] to early [[Edo period]]s, the phenomenon peaking in the 16th century (the late [[Muromachi period|Muromachi]] or [[Sengoku period]]). The term might be literally translated as "Japanese pirates," the ''wa'' (倭) denoting Japan, but many ''wakô'' were in fact Chinese.<ref name=arano186>Arano. p186.</ref>
==Early Wakô==
==Early Wakô==
During the reign of the first emperor of [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]], great efforts were made to establish coastal fortifications to defend against the so-called "Japanese pirates." However, raids and attacks on the Chinese coast at this time were led primarily not by Japanese, but by the Emperor's Chinese political rivals.<ref name=so209/>
During the reign of the first emperor of [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]], great efforts were made to establish coastal fortifications to defend against the so-called "Japanese pirates." However, raids and attacks on the Chinese coast at this time were led primarily not by Japanese, but by the Emperor's Chinese political rivals.<ref name=so209/> The [[Hongwu Emperor]] sought to restore relations with the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], and to get the shogunate to take action to curb ''wakô'' attacks, but, perhaps in part due to the chaos and disunity of the ''[[Nanboku-cho|Nanboku-chô]]'' period, the Emperor's efforts were unsuccessful. The Chinese Prime Minister [[Hu Weiyong]] was executed in [[1380]] for allegedly conspiring with the Japanese and with [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] loyalists to overthrow the Ming; as a result of the discovery of this conspiracy, efforts to restore relations with Japan were ended.<ref>So. p3.</ref>
The shogunate officially acknowledged Ming China as its [[suzerain]] in the 1390s, and entered into [[tribute|tributary relations]] which would continue through the 15th century. However, ''wakô'' raids occurred during this time as well. On occasion, the Japanese authorities would capture Japanese pirates and present them to the Ming authorities as proof that they were taking action, but the shogunate did not always demonstrate willingness to take action against the pirates. More to the point, despite the fact that the shogunate did not always have the ability to enforce order on the seas, to apprehend pirates, and to otherwise deal with the situation, the Ming Court seems to have been convinced that the shogunate had full power to control the raids.<ref>So. p4.</ref> This insistence on the part of the Chinese authorities would continue through the 16th century, and would prove a major obstacle to friendly relations between China and Japan.
==Wakô in the 16th Century==
==Wakô in the 16th Century==
Though relations between Ming [[China]] and the [[Ashikaga shogunate]] were quite good for a time, with merchants from both countries engaging in official trade, by the early 16th century, tensions arose between the two powers. The increasingly weak shogunate did not wield strong control throughout Japan, let alone overseas, and was unable to curb or halt the attacks by Japanese pirates, acting independently, upon the Chinese coast.<ref name=so204>So. p204.</ref> By the 1530s, Sengoku (i.e. civil war in many parts of Japan) was in full swing, the shogunate held little power, and relations with China had fully soured.
Though relations between Ming [[China]] and the Ashikaga shogunate were quite good for a time, with merchants from both countries engaging in official trade, by the early 16th century, tensions arose between the two powers. The increasingly weak shogunate did not wield strong control throughout Japan, let alone overseas, and was unable to curb or halt the attacks by Japanese pirates, acting independently, upon the Chinese coast.<ref name=so204>So. p204.</ref> By the 1530s, Sengoku (i.e. civil war in many parts of Japan) was in full swing, the shogunate held little power, and relations with China had fully soured.
Though the term ''wakô'' would come to be applied to a wide range of people, engaging in a wide range of activities, including Chinese traders and pirates, and Japanese traders, that is not to say that there were not, in fact, genuine Japanese pirates, raiders, brigands, or whatever term may wish to apply active on the seas at this time. The [[Murakami clan]]<!--see 村上水軍--> of [[Iyo province]], known for their piratical activities in the [[Inland Sea]], were among these; [[Murakami Zusho]], lord of Nôshima<!--能島--> is recorded as having led attacks on the Chinese coast, the Philippines, and parts of Indonesia. [[Iida Koichiro|Iida Kôichirô]] of Iyo and [[Kitaura Kanjuro|Kitaura Kanjûrô]] of [[Bingo province|Bingo]] are also known to have commanded raiding parties around this time. One contemporary source relates that "the seven bands" of ''wakô'', though presumably there were many more groups than that, grew to number as many as 1,000 men by 1555, if not earlier, incorporating people from a wide range of walks of life, including [[ronin]], fishermen, and others, mainly from Kyushu and Shikoku.<ref name=so1516>So. pp15-16.</ref>
Concurrent [[tribute]] missions sent by the [[Ouchi clan|Ôuchi]] and [[Hosokawa clan|Hosokawa families]] clashed in [[1523]], and burned Ningpo, becoming labeled as ''wakô''. The Chinese authorities responded by banning foreign trade in the area around Ningpo. This led in turn to a rise in illegal trade between the coastal Chinese on the one hand with Japanese and other foreigners. A number of Chinese families came to owe great debts to Japanese (or other foreign) traders, and though they sought aid from the local authorities, the foreigners resorted to piracy in order to reclaim the funds owed them, and for survival in the face of Chinese authorities seeking to capture them for the crime of participating in illegal trade.<ref>So. p5.</ref> Denied access to a satisfactory volume of official trade<ref>The Ôuchi sent the last Japanese tribute mission to China in 1549, but as tribute missions only occurred once in a number of years, and only consisted of a small number of ships (and thus, brought limited revenues), the clan desired a greater volume of trade.</ref>, the Ôuchi clan remained prominent for some time in commanding, backing, or otherwise encouraging some ''wakô'' bands including those led by prominent figures from other provinces and regions. The Ôuchi are often cited as among the chief backers of the ''wakô'', and it is through them that many draw connections between the ''wakô'' and Japanese national ambitions. However, the clan was destroyed by the [[Mori clan|Môri]] in [[1557]], while ''wakô'' activity continued.<ref>So. pp16-17. While the Ôuchi are mentioned in some contemporary Japanese sources, So Kwan-wai notes that most contemporary Chinese sources emphasize the Chinese involvement in organizing and leading ''wakô'' bands, and do not mention the Ôuchi at all.</ref>
As Chinese demand for, and Japanese supply of, silver rose in the 1530s-40s, a number of Chinese merchants established themselves at bases in Kyushu, selling expensive Chinese silks for Japanese silver, in violation of the Chinese bans. These merchants, including [[Wang Zhi]] (d. 1559), Chan Hai (d. 1556), Chen Dong (d. 1556), and Ye Ming (d. 1556), along with their mixed Chinese and Japanese crews, were considered '''wakô'' by the Chinese authorities as well, despite not being Japanese, and not being involved in any true piratical or raiding activities.<ref name=arano188>Arano. p188.</ref> One Chinese primary source indicates that the proportion of ethnic Chinese among the so-called "Japanese pirates" may have been as high as ninety percent.<ref>So. p205.</ref>
As Chinese demand for, and Japanese supply of, silver rose in the 1530s-40s, a number of Chinese merchants established themselves at bases in Kyushu, selling expensive Chinese silks for Japanese silver, in violation of the Chinese bans. These merchants, including [[Wang Zhi]] (d. 1559), Chan Hai (d. 1556), Chen Dong (d. 1556), and Ye Ming (d. 1556), along with their mixed Chinese and Japanese crews, were considered '''wakô'' by the Chinese authorities as well, despite not being Japanese, and not being involved in any true piratical or raiding activities.<ref name=arano188>Arano. p188.</ref> One Chinese primary source indicates that the proportion of ethnic Chinese among the so-called "Japanese pirates" may have been as high as ninety percent.<ref>So. p205.</ref>
Over time, the raids spread to encompass much of the South China coast. Though the pirates who emerged in the aftermath of the 1523 bans were largely traders, now regarded as smugglers under the ban, their crews gradually came to include people with little or no interest in trade, and more interest in violence and thievery. Huangyan, in Zhejiang province, fell in [[1552]] to a party of ''wakô'' said to number as many as 10,000.<ref name=so6>So. p6.</ref> Raiders traveled up the Yangtze and attacked cities along its shores the same year, and attacked Nanjing and Chaozhou in [[1555]]. By this time, many of the raiding parties made use of arquebuses (''[[teppo|teppô]]'').<ref name=so1516> Over the course of the early 1550s, the ''wakô'' seized or simply defeated nearly every defense post along the coast, transforming many into their own bases of operations. The situation became particularly severe for the Chinese authorities when the pirate threat spread to Nanjing.<ref name=so6/>
After 1555, the ''wakô'' threat to the central Jiangnan region diminished, as the pirates turned their attentions to Fujian to the south, and Anhui to the north. Raids became fewer. Yet, altogether, eleven cities had been captured by the raiders, and countless coastal unwalled market towns attacked. After 1561, ''wakô'' attacks diminished even further, except in and around Fujian,<ref>So. pp6-7.</ref> and in [[1563]], Chinese military forces expelled a number of ''wakô'' from that region as well.<ref name=so204/>
While there were certainly many Japanese who did engage in violent acts of piracy and raiding, however, one of the chief factors contributing to the growth of the phenomenon was the Chinese ''[[hai jin]]'' ban on overseas travel and trade, imposed in [[1557]]. Formal trade with foreign countries (including Japan) was only allowed to occur within the framework of [[tribute|tributary relations]], and only at certain designated ports. Strict restrictions were placed on Chinese contact or trade with foreigners. In theory, this was intended to prevent Chinese merchants or seamen from becoming involved with the ''wakô'' or other foreign forces, but in practice, such policies were ineffective in preventing contact and trade - a great many Chinese settled abroad and conducted trade and other interactions as "overseas Chinese" no longer subject to Ming law.<ref name=arano186/> Furthermore, in the eyes of the Chinese Court, Japanese seamen who sought to trade with Chinese, or to make port in China, as well as many Chinese seeking to trade with Japanese, were considered in violation of the bans, and were labeled criminals, and ''wakô''. In this way, the numbers of the ''wakô'', and their perceived presence, grew dramatically.
While there were certainly many Japanese who did engage in violent acts of piracy and raiding, however, one of the chief factors contributing to the growth of the phenomenon was the Chinese ''[[hai jin]]'' ban on overseas travel and trade, imposed in [[1557]]. Formal trade with foreign countries (including Japan) was only allowed to occur within the framework of [[tribute|tributary relations]], and only at certain designated ports. Strict restrictions were placed on Chinese contact or trade with foreigners. In theory, this was intended to prevent Chinese merchants or seamen from becoming involved with the ''wakô'' or other foreign forces, but in practice, such policies were ineffective in preventing contact and trade - a great many Chinese settled abroad and conducted trade and other interactions as "overseas Chinese" no longer subject to Ming law.<ref name=arano186/> Furthermore, in the eyes of the Chinese Court, Japanese seamen who sought to trade with Chinese, or to make port in China, as well as many Chinese seeking to trade with Japanese, were considered in violation of the bans, and were labeled criminals, and ''wakô''. In this way, the numbers of the ''wakô'', and their perceived presence, grew dramatically.
Nevertheless, in aggregate, an image emerges of Chinese and Korean use of the term ''wakô'', or "Japanese pirates," to refer not only to Japanese raiders, brigands and the like, but also to raiders and brigands of a number of other ethnicities (mainly Chinese), to smugglers and traders less involved in violent or predatory activity, and to the formal samurai invasion forces of [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]. The 17th century Official History of the Ming (''[[Ming shi]]''), among other primary sources, links the ''wakô'' to Japanese foreign relations policy, implying if not stating outright that the ''wakô'' were agents of the central Japanese authorities, and conflating pirate raids and the like with Hideyoshi's formal invasion forces. These sources also make little or no distinction between those who committed violent acts of piracy and coastal raids, and those who simply engaged in maritime trade in violation of Ming law. These conflations and distortions are reflected in much later scholarship, and in modern-day textbooks as well.
Nevertheless, in aggregate, an image emerges of Chinese and Korean use of the term ''wakô'', or "Japanese pirates," to refer not only to Japanese raiders, brigands and the like, but also to raiders and brigands of a number of other ethnicities (mainly Chinese), to smugglers and traders less involved in violent or predatory activity, and to the formal samurai invasion forces of [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]. The 17th century Official History of the Ming (''[[Ming shi]]''), among other primary sources, links the ''wakô'' to Japanese foreign relations policy, implying if not stating outright that the ''wakô'' were agents of the central Japanese authorities, and conflating pirate raids and the like with Hideyoshi's formal invasion forces. These sources also make little or no distinction between those who committed violent acts of piracy and coastal raids, and those who simply engaged in maritime trade in violation of Ming law. These conflations and distortions are reflected in much later scholarship, and in modern-day textbooks as well.
Some contemporary sources, however, were much more clear on the actual identities and activities of the so-called "Japanese pirates." A 1596 text by Vice Commissioner for Military Defense Ts'ai Feng-shih describes the "Wo" as not being all barbarians, i.e. Japanese, but as actually being led by spurious barbarians, i.e. Chinese, and goes on to recommend that the concern should be not with the "barbarians," but with the "spurious barbarians."<ref>Ts'ai Feng-shih. ''An Illustrated Discourse on the Maritime Defenses of Wen-chou and Ch'u-chou'' (''Wen-Ch'u hai-fang t'u-lüeh''). Cited in translation in So. p212.</ref> Similarly, Hsieh Chieh (d. 1604), wrote that "the pirates and the traders were the same people. When trade flourished, the pirates became traders; when trade was banned, the traders became pirates."<ref>So. p214.</ref>
Some contemporary sources, however, were much more clear on the actual identities and activities of the so-called "Japanese pirates." A 1596 text by Vice Commissioner for Military Defense Cai Fengshi describes the "Wo" as not being all barbarians, i.e. Japanese, but as actually being led by spurious barbarians, i.e. Chinese, and goes on to recommend that the concern should be not with the "barbarians," but with the "spurious barbarians."<ref>Ts'ai Feng-shih. ''An Illustrated Discourse on the Maritime Defenses of Wen-chou and Ch'u-chou'' (''Wen-Ch'u hai-fang t'u-lüeh''). Cited in translation in So. p212.</ref> Similarly, Xie Jie (d. 1604), wrote that "the pirates and the traders were the same people. When trade flourished, the pirates became traders; when trade was banned, the traders became pirates."<ref>So. p214.</ref> He goes on to cite Chinese bans on trade and other restrictions and policies as the chief causes of ''wakô'' activity, suggesting that if trade were allowed to take place legally, illegal activity would diminish.<ref>So. pp215-216.</ref>
==References==
==References==
