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While Korea, Ryûkyû, and Vietnam formed the core of the Sinocentric tribute network, and along with Japan the countries within the region of strongest Chinese cultural influence, the Chinese tribute trade also had significant impacts on a half-dozen or so Southeast Asian polities. The ports of Thang-long in Vietnam, Aceh (Sumatra), Bantam (Java), and Makassar (Sulawesi), along with the Siamese royal capital of Ayutthaya, were all sizable communities of at least 100,000 inhabitants each, and all were vibrantly multi-cultural, multi-ethnic ports, highly active in the regional maritime trade. Through the impact of the Chinese trade, along with other factors, all of these areas saw considerable commercialization and monetization of their local economies in the 15th-17th centuries. The most rapid growth came circa 1570-1630, coinciding with the peak of [[Nihonmachi|Japanese maritime activity in the region]], and of high seas competition between the [[VOC|Dutch]], [[EIC|English]], Spanish, and Portuguese.<ref>Kang, David C. “Hierarchy in Asian International Relations: 1300-1900.” ''Asian Security'' 1, no. 1 (2005): 59.</ref>

While Korea, Ryûkyû, and Vietnam formed the core of the Sinocentric tribute network, and along with Japan the countries within the region of strongest Chinese cultural influence, the Chinese tribute trade also had significant impacts on a half-dozen or so Southeast Asian polities. The ports of Thang-long in Vietnam, Aceh (Sumatra), Bantam (Java), and Makassar (Sulawesi), along with the Siamese royal capital of Ayutthaya, were all sizable communities of at least 100,000 inhabitants each, and all were vibrantly multi-cultural, multi-ethnic ports, highly active in the regional maritime trade. Through the impact of the Chinese trade, along with other factors, all of these areas saw considerable commercialization and monetization of their local economies in the 15th-17th centuries. The most rapid growth came circa 1570-1630, coinciding with the peak of [[Nihonmachi|Japanese maritime activity in the region]], and of high seas competition between the [[VOC|Dutch]], [[EIC|English]], Spanish, and Portuguese.<ref>Kang, David C. “Hierarchy in Asian International Relations: 1300-1900.” ''Asian Security'' 1, no. 1 (2005): 59.</ref>

Tribute missions were permitted on a regular, but limited schedule, thus limiting all official (legal) trade as well. For the most part, Korea and Ryûkyû were permitted to send missions once every two years; at times, for various political reasons, this was changed to once every three years. Similarly, Muromachi Japan was permitted, at times, to send missions only once every ten years; Japan sent 17 missions over a nearly 150-year period from [[1404]] to [[1547]] under the ''[[kango boeki|kangô bôeki]]'' system.<ref>Kang, David C. “Hierarchy and Legitimacy in International Systems: The Tribute System in Early Modern East Asia.” ''Security Studies'' 19, no. 4 (2010): 604.</ref> The tribute system was managed by a Maritime Trade Office, or ''[[shibosi]]'' (市舶司); originally there was only one such office, but before long ''shibosi'' offices were established in the major ports of [[Fuzhou]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Ningpo]] and [[Guangzhou]].<ref name=schott14/> In total, tribute missions from Ryûkyû appear in the ''[[Ming shi]]'' (Official History of Ming) 171 times, nearly doubly as often as the 89 missions from Korea, and far outnumbering tribute missions from any other polity.<ref name=kuninda>Gallery labels, "Kuninda - Ryûkyû to Chûgoku no kakehashi," special exhibit, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, Sept 2014.</ref>

Tribute missions were permitted on a regular, but limited schedule, thus limiting all official (legal) trade as well. For the most part, Korea and Ryûkyû were permitted to send missions once every two years; at times, for various political reasons, this was changed to once every three years. Similarly, Muromachi Japan was permitted, at times, to send missions only once every ten years; Japan sent 17 missions over a nearly 150-year period from [[1404]] to [[1547]] under the ''[[kango boeki|kangô bôeki]]'' system.<ref>Kang, David C. “Hierarchy and Legitimacy in International Systems: The Tribute System in Early Modern East Asia.” ''Security Studies'' 19, no. 4 (2010): 604.</ref> The tribute system was managed by a Maritime Trade Office, or ''[[shibosi]]'' (市舶司); originally there was only one such office, but before long ''shibosi'' offices were established in the major ports of [[Fuzhou]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Ningpo]] and [[Guangzhou]].<ref name=schott14/> While in [[1372]] the [[Hongwu Emperor]] limited tribute embassies from all countries to being dispatched only once every three years, an exception was made for Ryûkyû. The various Ryukyuan kings were told in [[1382]] that they were permitted to send as many tributary embassies as they wished; further, they were not limited to particular ports (as embassies from other countries were), were permitted to authorize their own embassies, and were provided with [[kaisen|ocean-going vessels]] and personnel to effect the successful organization and transportation of the tribute missions. Some 57 embassies were dispatched from Ryûkyû between 1372 and [[1398]], an average of two per year.<ref name=smits65>Gregory Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', University of Hawaii Press (2019), 65.</ref> Even after embassies from Ryûkyû were restricted to one a year in [[1440]], and then to one every other year, Ryûkyû remained one of the most active tributaries.<ref>Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', 68.</ref> In total, tribute missions from Ryûkyû appear in the ''[[Ming shi]]'' (Official History of Ming) 171 times, nearly doubly as often as the 89 missions from Korea, and far outnumbering tribute missions from any other polity.<ref name=kuninda>Gallery labels, "Kuninda - Ryûkyû to Chûgoku no kakehashi," special exhibit, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, Sept 2014.</ref> [[Gregory Smits]] suggests that this rather generous treatment was extended to Ryûkyû in an effort to reduce ''[[wako|wakô]]'' activity by making legitimate trade more appealing than smuggling or piracy, and at the same time to make Ryûkyû an active transshipment hub bringing Japanese and Southeast Asian products into Chinese markets despite the Ming ban on direct (Chinese) trade with such regions.<ref name=smits65/> Though restrictions were eventually imposed upon Ryûkyû, bringing it more in line with Ming/Qing treatment of Korea and other tributaries, Ryûkyû remained an active tributary into the 1870s.

Foreign ships were required to send a certain portion of their cargoes as tribute, and a portion of their personnel as envoys, to the Imperial capital, though the remainder of the cargo could be sold privately, that is, independently, for profit, by the foreigners, or by the Chinese port officials on the foreigners' behalf. The Ming court paid for travel expenses, often providing horses and ships, but limited missions to 150 people.

Foreign ships were required to send a certain portion of their cargoes as tribute, and a portion of their personnel as envoys, to the Imperial capital, though the remainder of the cargo could be sold privately, that is, independently, for profit, by the foreigners, or by the Chinese port officials on the foreigners' behalf. The Ming court paid for travel expenses, often providing horses and ships, but limited missions to 150 people.

Korea generally sent gold, silver, skins (especially leopard and sea otter), brushes, paper, ginseng, and silks, woven mats, and other kinds of textiles. Items such as cattle, horses, cotton, grain, pepper, materials for making weapons and gunpowder (e.g. sulphur), as well as human slaves, young girls, and eunuchs, were often requested by the Ming Court. In return, Korea obtained a variety of goods including silks, jades, medicinal products, musical instruments, books, and [[dragon robe]]s.<ref name=schottenhammer556>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 55-56.</ref>

Korea generally sent gold, silver, skins (especially leopard and sea otter), brushes, paper, ginseng, and silks, woven mats, and other kinds of textiles. Items such as cattle, horses, cotton, grain, pepper, materials for making weapons and [[gunpowder]] (e.g. [[sulphur]]), as well as human slaves, young girls, and eunuchs, were often requested by the Ming Court. In return, Korea obtained a variety of goods including silks, jades, medicinal products, musical instruments, books, and [[dragon robe]]s.<ref name=schottenhammer556>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 55-56.</ref>

Tributary missions typically brought a considerable volume of goods, especially local products, to offer to the Chinese emperor as tribute, receiving a great volume of gifts in return; they were then, typically, in addition, permitted to engage in private trade, both in Beijing, and in other ports along their way home. Both the gifts "bestowed" upon the foreigners in gifts, and the private trade, could be quite lucrative. Private trade conducted in conjunction with a tribute mission often yielded two or three times the normal market price. In this way, tribute trade was able to serve as the only official trade with China. Still, unofficial trade was rampant throughout the period, and at times, the Ming Court even relaxed its policies, in recognition of the great demand for trade. Beginning in [[1509]], the emperor allowed ships from tributary states to trade at Guangzhou, even outside of their designated years. From [[1567]], Chinese merchants engaged in trade in Southeast Asian ports could operate in a particular port in [[Fujian province]] opened that year to such business.<ref>Lloyd Eastman, ''Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China's Social and Economic History, 1550-1949'', Oxford University Press (1988), 123-124.</ref>

Tributary missions typically brought a considerable volume of goods, especially local products, to offer to the Chinese emperor as tribute, receiving a great volume of gifts in return; they were then, typically, in addition, permitted to engage in private trade, both in Beijing, and in other ports along their way home. Both the gifts "bestowed" upon the foreigners in gifts, and the private trade, could be quite lucrative. Private trade conducted in conjunction with a tribute mission often yielded two or three times the normal market price. In this way, tribute trade was able to serve as the only official trade with China. Still, unofficial trade was rampant throughout the period, and at times, the Ming Court even relaxed its policies, in recognition of the great demand for trade. Beginning in [[1509]], the emperor allowed ships from tributary states to trade at Guangzhou, even outside of their designated years. From [[1567]], Chinese merchants engaged in trade in Southeast Asian ports could operate in a particular port in [[Fujian province]] opened that year to such business.<ref>Lloyd Eastman, ''Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China's Social and Economic History, 1550-1949'', Oxford University Press (1988), 123-124.</ref>