Changes

*''Japanese'': 東京 ''(toukyou)''

*''Japanese'': 東京 ''(toukyou)''

The relaxation of ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' obligations in [[1862]] meant that [[han|domains]] no longer needed to maintain mansions and extensive staffs or retainer bases in Edo. Combined with the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in the 1868 [[Meiji Restoration]], the [[abolition of the han]] in [[1871]], and the attenuation of samurai stipends, many ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'' abandoned their [[daimyo yashiki|mansions]] in the city in the 1860s-1870s, and returned to their home provinces along with their families and (former) retainers, with many other samurai leaving the city in other ways. Edo thus dropped from a population height of around 1.3 million in the early 19th century to just over 500,000 in [[1869]], returning to peak levels only around [[1889]].<ref>Fujitani, 39.</ref> The dramatic loss of so many consumers from the city over a relatively short period of time also had a significant depressive effect upon the city's commercial economy, from which it also took some time to recover.

The relaxation of ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' obligations in [[1862]] meant that [[han|domains]] no longer needed to maintain mansions and extensive staffs or retainer bases in Edo. Combined with the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in the 1868 [[Meiji Restoration]], the [[abolition of the han]] in [[1871]], and the attenuation of samurai stipends, many ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'' abandoned their [[daimyo yashiki|mansions]] in the city in the 1860s-1870s, and returned to their home provinces along with their families and (former) retainers, with many other samurai leaving the city in other ways. Edo thus dropped from a population height of around 1.3 million in the early 19th century to just over 500,000 in [[1869]], returning to peak levels only around [[1889]].<ref>Fujitani, 39.</ref> The dramatic loss of so many consumers from the city over a relatively short period of time also had a significant depressive effect upon the city's commercial economy, from which it also took some time to recover.

Though Tokyo is generally said today to have become the Imperial capital of Japan in [[1868]], when Edo was officially renamed Tokyo, [[Edo castle]] was designated the Imperial Palace, and the [[Meiji Emperor]] took up residence there, in fact there was little agreement at the time that Tokyo was to become (or had become) ''the'' Imperial capital. According to various metrics or definitions, Tokyo was not in fact ''the'' Imperial capital until sometime in the 1870s or 1880s, with some of the most significant [[Meiji government]] officials describing it as an ''[[anzaisho]]'', a temporary court, up until 1889. This argument is significantly aided by the fact that the palace was ravaged by fire in [[1873]], forcing the Imperial family to live in the former mansions of the [[Kishu Tokugawa clan|Kishû Tokugawa clan]] (designated the [[Akasaka Temporary Palace]] for the duration) until the new Imperial Palace was completed in [[1889]]. In the meantime, much of the former castle grounds became overgrown and infested with foxes and other wildlife.<ref>Fujitani, 41.</ref>

Though Tokyo is generally said today to have become the Imperial capital of Japan in [[1868]], when Edo was officially renamed Tokyo, [[Edo castle]] was designated the Imperial Palace, and the [[Meiji Emperor]] took up residence there, in fact there was little agreement at the time that Tokyo was to become (or had become) ''the'' Imperial capital. According to various metrics or definitions, Tokyo was not in fact ''the'' Imperial capital until sometime in the 1870s or 1880s, with some of the most significant [[Meiji government]] officials describing it as an ''[[anzaisho]]'', a temporary court, up until 1889. This argument is significantly aided by the fact that the palace was ravaged by fire in [[1873]], forcing the Imperial family to live in the former mansions of the [[Kishu Tokugawa clan|Kishû Tokugawa clan]] (designated the [[Kishu Tokugawa Edo mansion|Akasaka Temporary Palace]] for the duration) until the new Imperial Palace was completed in [[1889]]. In the meantime, much of the former castle grounds became overgrown and infested with foxes and other wildlife.<ref>Fujitani, 41.</ref>

Figures such as [[Eto Shinpei|Etô Shinpei]] and [[Oki Takato|Ôki Takatô]], the first governor of Tokyo, expressing fears that with the [[Boshin War]] not yet over, Japan might split into east and west, proposed establishing Edo as a second imperial capital, a capital of the East, such that the Emperor might travel between Kyoto and Tokyo, and in so doing watch over the entire country, and enforce unity. [[Kido Takayoshi]] similarly advocated having Edo as an Eastern Capital, [[Osaka]] as a Western Capital, and Kyoto as the Imperial Capital,<ref name=fujitani4445>Fujitani, 44-45.</ref> and [[Inoue Yorikuni]] suggested that in the future they might even establish additional Imperial capitals in [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]] and [[Taiwan]].<ref name=fujitani33>Fujitani, 33.</ref> As a result of these concerns about establishing and enforcing national peace and unity, the Imperial Edict which officially declared Edo "Tokyo" on 1868/7/17 included that "the emperor looked upon ‘the realm as one house, the East and West equally.’"<ref name=fujitani4445/>

Figures such as [[Eto Shinpei|Etô Shinpei]] and [[Oki Takato|Ôki Takatô]], the first governor of Tokyo, expressing fears that with the [[Boshin War]] not yet over, Japan might split into east and west, proposed establishing Edo as a second imperial capital, a capital of the East, such that the Emperor might travel between Kyoto and Tokyo, and in so doing watch over the entire country, and enforce unity. [[Kido Takayoshi]] similarly advocated having Edo as an Eastern Capital, [[Osaka]] as a Western Capital, and Kyoto as the Imperial Capital,<ref name=fujitani4445>Fujitani, 44-45.</ref> and [[Iwakura Tomomi]], said to have had difficulty imagining Kyoto no longer being capital, presented a recommendation that Kyoto be renamed ''saikyô'' (Western Capital), to accompany [[Nara]], Tokyo, and a site in [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]] as the southern, eastern, and northern capitals respectively. He also suggested establishing imperial mausolea in both Tokyo and Kyoto, while the national legislature (the Kôgisho) similarly discussed in 1869 the possibility of establishing branch shrines of [[Ise Shrine]] in both cities, as centers for the national religion.<ref>Fujitani, 56-57.</ref> As a result of these concerns about establishing and enforcing national peace and unity, the Imperial Edict which officially declared Edo "Tokyo" on 1868/7/17 included that "the emperor looked upon ‘the realm as one house, the East and West equally.’"<ref name=fujitani4445/>

Even then, the Imperial House Laws drafted that year still mandated that ''sokui'' and ''[[daijosai|daijôsai]]'' accession ceremonies were to take place in Kyoto. Tokyo was not officially named "Imperial capital" (''teito'', 帝都) until 1889,<ref>[[Albert Craig]] (ed.), ''Japan: A Comparative View'', Princeton University Press (2015), 70.</ref> and as [[Fukuoka Takachika]], one of the drafters of the [[Charter Oath]], insisted, the Imperial Palace, though renamed ''kôkyo'' ("imperial residence") in 1868, was not officially designated "Imperial Palace" (''kyûjô'', 宮城) until 1889 and therefore was only an ''anzaisho'', base from which the emperor went out on Imperial progresses (tours).<ref name=fujitani33/>

Even then, the Imperial House Laws drafted that year still mandated that ''sokui'' and ''[[daijosai|daijôsai]]'' accession ceremonies were to take place in Kyoto. Tokyo was not officially named "Imperial capital" (''teito'', 帝都) until 1889,<ref>[[Albert Craig]] (ed.), ''Japan: A Comparative View'', Princeton University Press (2015), 70.</ref> and as [[Fukuoka Takachika]], one of the drafters of the [[Charter Oath]], insisted, the Imperial Palace, though renamed ''kôkyo'' ("imperial residence") in 1868, was not officially designated "Imperial Palace" (''kyûjô'', 宮城) until 1889 and therefore was only an ''anzaisho'', base from which the emperor went out on Imperial progresses (tours).<ref>Fujitani, 33.</ref>

Other officials, including [[Okubo Toshimichi|Ôkubo Toshimichi]] and [[Okuma Shigenobu|Ôkuma Shigenobu]] seem to have been less concerned, immediately, with what Tokyo should be or become, but rather with getting the Emperor out of Kyoto, and having him tour the [[provinces]], to be seen by the people, and to be seen surveying the land and the people, in order to reinforce the nationalistic connection between the people and the Emperor (and the nation); these tours were also aimed at turning the earlier conception of the emperor as lofty and aloof from politics into a conception of the Emperor as existing at the center of, or even embodying or being equivalent to, government.<ref name=fujitani4445/>

Other officials, including [[Okubo Toshimichi|Ôkubo Toshimichi]] and [[Okuma Shigenobu|Ôkuma Shigenobu]] seem to have been less concerned, immediately, with what Tokyo should be or become, but rather with getting the Emperor out of Kyoto, and having him tour the [[provinces]], to be seen by the people, and to be seen surveying the land and the people, in order to reinforce the nationalistic connection between the people and the Emperor (and the nation); these tours were also aimed at turning the earlier conception of the emperor as lofty and aloof from politics into a conception of the Emperor as existing at the center of, or even embodying or being equivalent to, government.<ref name=fujitani4445/>

====Building a Modern National Capital====

====Building a Modern National Capital====

Construction of Tokyo as a modern national capital, including elements which drew upon Western modes of expressing, celebrating, and instilling nationalism through monuments, began in earnest at the very end of the 1880s, and into the 1890s. A bronze statue of [[Omura Masujiro|Ômura Masujirô]], erected at [[Yasukuni Shrine]] in [[1893]], is oft-cited as the first such Western-style bronze statue of a national hero to be erected in Japan;<ref>Fujitani, 17.; Suzuki Eka, "Building Statues of Japanese Governors: Monumental Bronze Sculptures and Colonial Cooperation in Taiwan under Japanese Rule," presentation at 2013 UCSB International Conference on Taiwan Studies, University of California at Santa Barbara, 7 Dec 2013.</ref> many more followed soon after.

Construction of Tokyo as a modern national capital, including elements which drew upon Western modes of expressing, celebrating, and instilling nationalism through monuments, began in earnest at the very end of the 1880s, and into the 1890s. A bronze statue of [[Omura Masujiro|Ômura Masujirô]], erected at [[Yasukuni Shrine]] in [[1893]], is oft-cited as the first such Western-style bronze statue of a national hero to be erected in Japan;<ref>Fujitani, 17.; Suzuki Eka, "Building Statues of Japanese Governors: Monumental Bronze Sculptures and Colonial Cooperation in Taiwan under Japanese Rule," presentation at 2013 UCSB International Conference on Taiwan Studies, University of California at Santa Barbara, 7 Dec 2013.; the statue of Ômura was in fact preceded by a large bronze statue of [[Yamato Takeru]], erected in [[Kenrokuen]] in [[Kanazawa]] in [[1880]]. However, the statue of Ômura was nevertheless the first bronze statue in Tokyo, and the first in the country to depict a more contemporary figure more directly associated with the modern state.</ref> many more followed soon after.

The first [[railroads|train line]] in Japan opened in [[1872]], connecting [[Sakuragicho Station|Yokohama]] with [[Shinagawa]] Station in Tokyo; the line was extended before the end of that year to Tokyo's [[Shinbashi Station]].<ref>Plaques on-site at Sakuragichô Station, Yokohama.</ref> By 1889, the first incarnation of the [[Tokaido|Tôkaidô Main Line]] was complete, connecting Tokyo by rail as far as [[Kobe]]. The [[Yoshiwara]], and the brothels, teahouses, and prostitutes of a number of other areas were brought under the jurisdiction of the [[Tokyo Metropolitan Police]] in [[1875]].

The first [[railroads|train line]] in Japan opened in [[1872]], connecting [[Sakuragicho Station|Yokohama]] with [[Shinagawa]] Station in Tokyo; the line was extended before the end of that year to Tokyo's [[Shinbashi Station]].<ref>Plaques on-site at Sakuragichô Station, Yokohama.</ref> By 1889, the first incarnation of the [[Tokaido|Tôkaidô Main Line]] was complete, connecting Tokyo by rail as far as [[Kobe]]. The [[Yoshiwara]], and the brothels, teahouses, and prostitutes of a number of other areas were brought under the jurisdiction of the [[Tokyo Metropolitan Police]] in [[1875]], and rapidly declined in size and stature. By the early decades of the 20th century, the Yoshiwara was only a mere shadow of its former self, but it did continue to exist and operate until it was formally closed in 1958.

Construction of Western-style buildings had begun as early as the [[Bakumatsu]] period, but many of the most significant municipal, national, and Imperial structures were only first completed in the 1880s. These include the [[Tokyo National Museum]], designed in its first red-brick incarnation by [[Josiah Conder]] and completed in [[1881]], the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] [[General Staff Office]], completed that same year by [[Giovanni Vincenzo Cappelletti]], and the [[Rokumeikan]], also designed by Conder, and completed in [[1883]] on the former grounds of a secondary residence of the [[Shimazu clan]] of [[Satsuma han]].<ref>[[Ichioka Masakazu]], ''[[Tokugawa seiseiroku]]'', 1889, reprinted Tokyo: Heibonsha (1989), 29.; Dallas Finn, "Reassessing the Rokumeikan," in Ellen Conant (ed.), ''Challenging Past and Present: The Metamorphosis of Nineteenth-Century Japanese Art'', University of Hawaii Press (2006), 227-239.</ref>  

[[Fukuzawa Yukichi]] was among the most prominent of a series of officials who called in [[1883]] for a coordinated plan for the city as a whole, and for a focus on the palace, criticizing the efforts of former Tokyo governor [[Matsuda Michiyuki]] (gov. [[1879]]-[[1882]]) and others to simply build up Tokyo piecemeal, one project at a time. Construction of Western-style buildings had begun as early as the [[Bakumatsu]] period, and the [[Ginza]], flanked by Shinbashi Station and by the Foreign Concessions, was built up into a rather modern commercial area filled with gaslamps, shopping arcades of two-story Georgian-style brick buildings, and the first sidewalks in Japan, as early as 1872-[[1877]];<ref>Fujitani, 71.</ref> however, many of the most significant municipal, national, and Imperial structures were only first completed in the 1880s. These include the [[Tokyo National Museum]], designed in its first red-brick incarnation by [[Josiah Conder]] and completed in [[1881]], the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] [[General Staff Office]], completed that same year by [[Giovanni Vincenzo Cappelletti]], and the [[Rokumeikan]], also designed by Conder, and completed in [[1883]] on the former grounds of a secondary residence of the [[Shimazu clan]] of [[Satsuma han]].<ref>[[Ichioka Masakazu]], ''[[Tokugawa seiseiroku]]'', 1889, reprinted Tokyo: Heibonsha (1989), 29.; Dallas Finn, "Reassessing the Rokumeikan," in Ellen Conant (ed.), ''Challenging Past and Present: The Metamorphosis of Nineteenth-Century Japanese Art'', University of Hawaii Press (2006), 227-239.</ref> The Rokumeikan, among other sites, quickly reached their heights as centers of Western-style elite gatherings (e.g. dinner parties, luncheons, ballroom dancing) during that decade.<ref>Finn, op. cit.</ref>

The year 1889 marks a significant shift in the way the Meiji government viewed and treated Tokyo, and thus in the development of the city. In that year, the Imperial family took up residence in the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]], which was completed the previous year after fires destroyed the previous palace (Edo castle) in [[1873]]. The Palace was officially designated an "Imperial Palace" (''kyûjô''), and the city, described for many years by foreign observers and Japanese alike as possessing an empty center, once more had a visible and monumental symbol of political power at its center. Parades and other events surrounding the celebration of the promulgation of the [[Meiji Constitution]] later that year are sometimes cited as the first major modern national ceremonies to be held in the streets of Tokyo. Celebrations of the thirtieth anniversary of the relocation of the capital, held in [[1898]], were another particularly notable event in the evolution of Tokyo's modern & national(ist) festivals.

In [[1884]], Tokyo governor [[Yoshikawa Akimasa]] submitted a proposal which was perhaps the first to highlight the accessibility - by road, rail, canals, and bridges - of the city, and the first to make particular considerations regarding the place of the Imperial Palace within the city. Yoshikawa advocated a series of four grand boulevards radiating outwards from the palace, which would provide thoroughfares for Imperial progresses, and for the comings and goings of foreign dignitaries. That same year, [[Yamazaki Naotane]] proposed clustering the chief government buildings near the palace, rather than having them scattered across the city. In accordance with the suggestions of Yamazaki and others at that time, Tokyo's government buildings remain today clustered in the Kasumigaseki area, while the Marunouchi area was given over to commercial development.<ref>Fujitani, 75-76.</ref>

 

The shift in attitude begun around 1883 towards desiring a modern national capital developed according to a coordinated plan, and with an impressive Imperial Palace at its center, reached a certain culmination in [[1889]]. In that year, the Imperial family took up residence in the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace]], which was completed the previous year after fires destroyed the previous palace (Edo castle) in [[1873]]. The Palace was officially designated an "Imperial Palace" (''kyûjô''), and the city, described for many years by foreign observers and Japanese alike as possessing an empty center, once more had a visible and monumental symbol of political power at its center. Parades and other events surrounding the celebration of the promulgation of the [[Meiji Constitution]] later that year are sometimes cited as the first major modern national ceremonies to be held in the streets of Tokyo. Celebrations of the thirtieth anniversary of the relocation of the capital, held in [[1898]], were another particularly notable event in the evolution of Tokyo's modern & national(ist) festivals.

 

The [[Akasaka Detached Palace]] and the Hyôkeikan of the Tokyo National Museum, key examples of a later phase of [[Meiji period architecture]], were completed in [[1909]].

The [[Akasaka Detached Palace]] and the Hyôkeikan of the Tokyo National Museum, key examples of a later phase of [[Meiji period architecture]], were completed in [[1909]].

The signing of the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]] on September 5, [[1905]], ending the [[Russo-Japanese War]], brought perhaps the first major urban riots of the modern period. Protesting the terms of the treaty, citizens set fire to the prime minister's residence, electric streetcars, and police boxes, in what came to be known as the [[Hibiya Riots]]. The riots continued for the better part of three days before being dispersed on September 7.<ref>[[Anne Walthall]], "Nishimiya Hide: Turning Palace Arts into Marketable Skills," in Walthall (ed.), ''The Human Tradition in Modern Japan," Scholarly Resources, Inc. (2002), 59.</ref>  

The signing of the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]] on September 5, [[1905]], ending the [[Russo-Japanese War]], brought perhaps the first major urban riots of the modern period. Protesting the terms of the treaty, citizens set fire to the prime minister's residence, electric streetcars, and police boxes, in what came to be known as the [[Hibiya Riots]]. The riots continued for the better part of three days before being dispersed on September 7.<ref>[[Anne Walthall]], "Nishimiya Hide: Turning Palace Arts into Marketable Skills," in Walthall (ed.), ''The Human Tradition in Modern Japan," Scholarly Resources, Inc. (2002), 59.</ref>

===Taishô through World War II===

===Taishô through World War II===

By the 1920s, Tokyo was a wholly modern city, a major center of urban & popular cultural developments more or less cutting-edge with New York and other world cities. The city's streets were filled with movie theaters, jazz bars, cafés, and the like, fashion trends brought the "modern boy" and flapper-like "modern girl" (''moga''), and Art Deco and other artistic movements were active in Tokyo just as they were in New York and Paris. The city had already become integrated with many international networks already since decades earlier, with the first YMCA in Japan, for example, opening in Tokyo as early as [[1880]].

By the 1920s, Tokyo was a wholly modern city, a major center of urban & popular cultural developments more or less cutting-edge with New York and other world cities. The city's streets were filled with movie theaters, jazz bars, cafés, and the like, fashion trends brought the "modern boy" and flapper-like "modern girl" (''moga''), and Art Deco and other artistic movements were active in Tokyo just as they were in New York and Paris. The city had already become integrated with many international networks already since decades earlier, with the first YMCA in Japan, for example, opening in Tokyo as early as [[1880]].

Tokyo Prefecture (''Tôkyô-fu''), previously an urban prefecture, or ''fu'', on par with the status [[Osaka prefecture]] (''Ôsaka-fu'') and [[Kyoto prefecture]] (''Kyôto-fu'') retain today, was reorganized into Tokyo City (''Tôkyô-shi'') in 1932, and for a time Tokyo was governed by a mayor.<ref>"[http://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%93%81%E5%B7%9D Shinagawa]." ''Sekai daihyakka jiten'' 世界大百科事典. Hitachi Solutions, 2012.</ref> It was reorganized again, however, in 1943 into Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture (''Tôkyô-to''), becoming the only Metropolitan Prefecture (''-to'') in the country, and retaining that status today.

Tokyo Prefecture (''Tôkyô-fu''), previously an urban prefecture, or ''fu'', on par with the status [[Osaka prefecture]] (''Ôsaka-fu'') and [[Kyoto prefecture]] (''Kyôto-fu'') retain today, was reorganized into Tokyo City (''Tôkyô-shi'') in 1932, and for a time Tokyo was governed by a mayor.<ref>"[http://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%93%81%E5%B7%9D Shinagawa]." ''Sekai daihyakka jiten'' 世界大百科事典. Hitachi Solutions, 2012.</ref> It was reorganized again, however, in 1943 into Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture (''Tôkyô-to''), becoming the only Metropolitan Prefecture (''-to'') in the country, and retaining that status today.

The last year of the war saw Allied bombing raids destroy much of the city. Though efforts were made to not target the Imperial Palace, for fear that its destruction and/or the death of the Emperor would lead the Japanese people to greater nationalistic determination to go down fighting, much of the city was left completely in ruins. Winds spread the flames, as they had done in countless fires which ravaged Edo and other Japanese cities over the centuries, and the fires surged through neighborhood after neighborhood of mostly wood & paper homes. Some sixteen square miles of the city was turned to ash. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed, and by some estimates more than two million were left homeless.<ref>"[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2015/03/15/editorials/legacy-great-tokyo-air-raid/ Legacy of the Great Tokyo Air Raid]," ''Japan Times'', 15 March 2015.; Warren Kozak, "[http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124234559143121723 LeMay and the Tragedy of War]," ''Wall Street Journal'', 9 March 2015.</ref>  

The last year of the war saw Allied bombing raids destroy much of the city. Though efforts were made to not target the Imperial Palace, for fear that its destruction and/or the death of the Emperor would lead the Japanese people to greater nationalistic determination to go down fighting, much of the city was left completely in ruins. Winds spread the flames, as they had done in countless fires which ravaged Edo and other Japanese cities over the centuries, and the fires surged through neighborhood after neighborhood of mostly wood & paper homes. Some sixteen square miles of the city was turned to ash. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed, and by some estimates more than two million were left homeless.<ref>"[http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2015/03/15/editorials/legacy-great-tokyo-air-raid/ Legacy of the Great Tokyo Air Raid]," ''Japan Times'', 15 March 2015.; Warren Kozak, "[http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124234559143121723 LeMay and the Tragedy of War]," ''Wall Street Journal'', 9 March 2015.</ref>

===Postwar to Today===

===Postwar to Today===

==Governors of Tokyo==

==Governors of Tokyo==

#[[Oki Takato|Ôki Takatô]]

#[[Oki Takato|Ôki Takatô]]

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#

#

#

#

#

#

#[[Kusumoto Masataka]]

#[[Matsuda Michiyuki]]

#[[Matsuda Michiyuki]]

#[[Yoshikawa Akimasa]]

#[[Yoshikawa Akimasa]]

...

...

*[[Ozaki Yukio]] (c. 1910)

*[[Ozaki Yukio]] (c. 1910)

==Geography==

==Geography==