Changes

''Sankin kôtai'', or "alternate attendance," was a system of military service which served as a central piece of the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa shogunate's]] systems for controlling the ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'' and maintaining power. ''Daimyô'' were obligated to alternate their residence between [[Edo]] and their [[han|domain]]; the expense of journeys to and from Edo each other year, with large entourages, combined with the expense of maintaining [[daimyo yashiki|mansions]] in Edo often cost significant portions of the domain's resources, keeping them from consolidating power within their domains. The process of having so many samurai traveling to and from the capital, and maintaining residences in the capital, had a profound effect on cultural diffusion throughout the realm, and contributed significantly to the samurai-heavy demographic character of Edo.

''Sankin kôtai'', or "alternate attendance," was a system of military service which served as a central piece of the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa shogunate's]] systems for controlling the ''[[daimyo|daimyô]]'' and maintaining power. ''Daimyô'' were obligated to alternate their residence between [[Edo]] and their [[han|domain]]; the expense of journeys to and from Edo each other year, with large entourages, combined with the expense of maintaining [[daimyo yashiki|mansions]] in Edo often cost significant portions of the domain's resources, keeping them from consolidating power within their domains. The process of having so many samurai traveling to and from the capital, and maintaining residences in the capital, had a profound effect on cultural diffusion throughout the realm, and contributed significantly to the samurai-heavy demographic character of Edo.

[[File:Iyo-matsuyama-sankin.JPG|center|thumb|800px|Detail from a handscroll painting depicting the ''sankin kôtai'' procession of the lord of [[Iyo-Matsuyama han]]. Date unknown. [[National Museum of Japanese History]]]]

[[File:Iyo-matsuyama-sankin.JPG|center|thumb|800px|Detail from a handscroll painting depicting the ''sankin kôtai'' procession of the lord of [[Iyo-Matsuyama han]]. Date unknown. [[National Museum of Japanese History]]]]

The ''sankin kôtai'' system can be linked to a number of precedents in earlier periods, including in the relationships between ''[[gokenin]]'' ("housemen") and the [[Kamakura shogunate]], and between ''[[shugo|shugo daimyô]]'' and the [[Muromachi shogunate]]. Systems practiced in a number of [[Sengoku period]] domains provide an even stronger example, closer to the Edo period practice both chronologically, and logistically. In many regions in the Sengoku period, it was not unusual for retainers, granted a small sub-fief by their lords, to be required to appear before the lord at New Year's, or on other regular occasions, to demonstrate their obedience; of course, Sengoku retainers were also obliged to provide warriors, arms, horses, and/or other equipment to their lord's armies. The practice of keeping ''daimyô's'' wives and heirs hostage in Edo also grew out of Sengoku era practices regarding [[hostages]]. Yet, no such system was ever implemented in earlier periods as widely, and as systematically, as under the Tokugawa shogunate.<ref name=honjin49>Watanabe Kazutoshi 渡辺和敏, "Sankin kôtai to honjin" 参勤交代と本陣, ''Honjin ni tomatta daimyô tachi'' 本陣に泊まった大名たち, Toyohashi, Aichi: Futagawa-juku honjin shiryôkan (1996), 49-50.</ref>

The ''sankin kôtai'' system can be linked to a number of precedents in earlier periods, including in the relationships between ''[[gokenin]]'' ("housemen") and the [[Kamakura shogunate]], and between ''[[shugo|shugo daimyô]]'' and the [[Muromachi shogunate]]. Systems practiced in a number of [[Sengoku period]] domains provide an even stronger example, closer to the Edo period practice both chronologically, and logistically. In many regions in the Sengoku period, it was not unusual for retainers, granted a small sub-fief by their lords, to be required to appear before the lord at New Year's, or on other regular occasions, to demonstrate their obedience; of course, Sengoku retainers were also obliged to provide warriors, arms, horses, and/or other equipment to their lord's armies. The practice of keeping ''daimyô's'' wives and heirs hostage in Edo also grew out of Sengoku era practices regarding [[hostages]]. Yet, no such system was ever implemented in earlier periods as widely, and as systematically, as under the Tokugawa shogunate.<ref name=honjin49>Watanabe Kazutoshi 渡辺和敏, "Sankin kôtai to honjin" 参勤交代と本陣, ''Honjin ni tomatta daimyô tachi'' 本陣に泊まった大名たち, Toyohashi, Aichi: Futagawa-juku honjin shiryôkan (1996), 49-50.</ref>

Some scholars identify the first performances of ''sankin'' under the Tokugawa as a series of meetings in the earliest years of [[Tokugawa Ieyasu|Tokugawa Ieyasu's]] hegemony between Ieyasu and certain prominent ''tozama daimyô''. As [[Maeda Toshiie]] and others were received in audience by Ieyasu and formally bowed before him and declared their submission to his authority, they were performing "''sankin''": coming to their lord's castle and sitting in attendance, or in service, to their lord, the shogun. The lords of the [[Tohoku|northern]], [[Chugoku region|central]], and [[Saikoku region|western]] regions were obliged to journey to [[Sunpu]] and Edo in [[1609]], and to declare their submission and loyalty. Many of these ''daimyô'' had been loyal to the [[Toyotomi clan]], or still were, and had not been directly defeated in battle by the Tokugawa; thus, obliging them to formally declare their submission and loyalty was an important step towards securing Tokugawa hegemony. Building upon the ceremonial and socio-political / ideological (i.e. feudal) precedents of the preceding age, such audiences set the model, to some extent, for the form, and meaning, of ''sankin kôtai'' audiences going forward.<ref name=honjin49/>

Some scholars identify the first performances of ''sankin'' under the Tokugawa as a series of meetings in the earliest years of [[Tokugawa Ieyasu|Tokugawa Ieyasu's]] hegemony between Ieyasu and certain prominent ''tozama daimyô''. As [[Maeda Toshiie]] and others were received in audience by Ieyasu and formally bowed before him and declared their submission to his authority, they were performing "''sankin''": coming to their lord's castle and sitting in attendance, or in service, to their lord, the shogun. The lords of the [[Tohoku|northern]], [[Chugoku region|central]], and [[Saikoku region|western]] regions were obliged to journey to [[Sunpu]] and Edo in [[1609]], and to declare their submission and loyalty. Many of these ''daimyô'' had been loyal to the [[Toyotomi clan]], or still were, and had not been directly defeated in battle by the Tokugawa; thus, obliging them to formally declare their submission and loyalty was an important step towards securing Tokugawa hegemony. Building upon the ceremonial and socio-political / ideological (i.e. feudal) precedents of the preceding age, such audiences set the model, to some extent, for the form, and meaning, of ''sankin kôtai'' audiences going forward.<ref name=honjin49/> The [[Shimazu clan]] were the first to propose having the lords' wives remain in Edo as "hostages," a practice which was later made standard and obligatory by the shogunate.<ref name=ueno92/>

==Implementation & Logistics==

==Implementation & Logistics==

Initially voluntary, the system was made mandatory for ''tozama daimyô'' in [[1635]] in a re-issuance of the ''[[buke shohatto]]'' ("various laws for warrior families"); this was expanded to all ''daimyô'' in [[1642]]. Lords were obligated to maintain a residence in Edo, where members of their close family would reside as hostages against the ''daimyô's'' disobedience or rebellion. As of [[1648]], each lord's heir was obligated to travel to Edo as well, alternating with his father, so that either the lord or his heir would be in Edo at any given time. At some point after that, it became standard for the heir to simply be raised in Edo, and not to travel to the home domain (''kunimoto'') until he succeeded his father and became ''daimyô''; this further served the Tokugawa purposes of weakening ''daimyô'' ties to their power bases, as it meant that most ''daimyô'', having been raised in Edo, had little familiarity with their domain and its people. The first entry of a new ''daimyô'' into the domain, an event known as ''okuni iri'', was thus heightened in significance, and was often accompanied by great celebrations, and commemorated in paintings or other works.<ref>''Edo-zu byôbu to gyôretsu'', exhibition pamphlet, National Museum of Japanese History, August 2014.</ref> Retired ''daimyô'' were also obliged to travel to Edo occasionally, to be re-confirmed in their being granted leave to remain in their domain (or in Edo, as they wished).<ref name=nagairei>Nagai Hiroshi 永井博, ''Sankin kôtai to daimyô gyôretsu'' 参勤交代と大名行列 (Tokyo: Yôsensha 洋泉社 MOOK, 2012), 126-131.</ref>

Initially voluntary, the system was made mandatory for ''tozama daimyô'' in [[1635]] in a re-issuance of the ''[[buke shohatto]]'' ("various laws for warrior families"); this was expanded to all ''daimyô'' in [[1642]]. Lords were obligated to maintain a residence in Edo, where members of their close family would reside as hostages against the ''daimyô's'' disobedience or rebellion. As of [[1648]], each lord's heir was obligated to travel to Edo as well, alternating with his father, so that either the lord or his heir would be in Edo at any given time. At some point after that, it became standard for the heir to simply be raised in Edo, and not to travel to the home domain (''kunimoto'') until he succeeded his father and became ''daimyô''; this further served the Tokugawa purposes of weakening ''daimyô'' ties to their power bases, as it meant that most ''daimyô'', having been raised in Edo, had little familiarity with their domain and its people. The first entry of a new ''daimyô'' into the domain, an event known as ''okuni iri'', was thus heightened in significance, and was often accompanied by great celebrations, and commemorated in paintings or other works.<ref>''Edo-zu byôbu to gyôretsu'', exhibition pamphlet, National Museum of Japanese History, August 2014.</ref> Retired ''daimyô'' were also obliged to travel to Edo occasionally, to be re-confirmed in their being granted leave to remain in their domain (or in Edo, as they wished).<ref name=nagairei>Nagai Hiroshi 永井博, ''Sankin kôtai to daimyô gyôretsu'' 参勤交代と大名行列 (Tokyo: Yôsensha 洋泉社 MOOK, 2012), 126-131.</ref>

From [[1684]] onwards, the ''fudai daimyô'' of the [[Kanto|Kantô]] region had to make their ''sankin'' journeys every six months; seven clans alternated in the 2nd month of the year, and seven in the 8th month. Other ''fudai daimyô'' arrived in Edo in the 6th month, while ''tozama daimyô'' generally arrived in the 4th month.<ref>Miyamoto Tsuneichi 宮本常一, ''Nihon no shuku'' 日本の宿, Tokyo: Shakai shisôsha (1965), 165.; Miyamoto, ''Daimyô no tabi'', Tokyo: Shakai shisôsha (1968), 57.</ref>

From [[1684]] onwards, the ''fudai daimyô'' of the [[Kanto|Kantô]] region had to make their ''sankin'' journeys every six months; seven clans spent the 2nd month through the 8th month in the city, and another seven clans spent the 8th month through the 12th month there. Other ''fudai daimyô'' arrived in Edo in the 6th month, while ''tozama daimyô'' generally arrived in the 4th month.<ref>Miyamoto Tsuneichi 宮本常一, ''Nihon no shuku'' 日本の宿, Tokyo: Shakai shisôsha (1965), 165.; Miyamoto, ''Daimyô no tabi'', Tokyo: Shakai shisôsha (1968), 57.; Ogawa Kyôichi 小川恭一, ''Shogun omemie sahô'' 将軍お目見え作法, ''Tokyojin'' 東京人 (1995/1), 78.</ref>

Though most ''daimyô'' were obliged to perform this journey regularly, some ''tozama daimyô'' were granted exceptions, in most cases due to their great service to the realm in other respects, or after successfully arguing for the excessiveness of the burden. These included [[Tsushima han]] which governed relations and trade with [[Joseon|Korea]], and [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka]] and [[Saga han]], which contributed to the defense of the port of [[Nagasaki]]. Some northern domains which contributed to responses to Russian incursions also received temporary exemptions at times.<ref>[[Mark Ravina]], ''Land and Lordship in Early Modern Japan'', Stanford University Press (1999), 152.</ref> ''Daimyô'' could also request, and be granted, exceptions from ''sankin kôtai'' on a one-time basis, when the lord was ill or the Edo mansion had burned down, or when the domain was fulfilling its obligations to the shogunate through corvée contributions to public works that year.<ref name=nagairei/>

Though most ''daimyô'' were obliged to perform this journey regularly, some ''tozama daimyô'' were granted exceptions, in most cases due to their great service to the realm in other respects, or after successfully arguing for the excessiveness of the burden. These included [[Tsushima han]] which governed relations and trade with [[Joseon|Korea]], and [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka]] and [[Saga han]], which contributed to the defense of the port of [[Nagasaki]]. Some northern domains which contributed to responses to Russian incursions also received temporary exemptions at times.<ref>[[Mark Ravina]], ''Land and Lordship in Early Modern Japan'', Stanford University Press (1999), 152.</ref> For much of the Edo period, the lords of Tsushima were obliged to travel to Edo only once every three years; those of [[Matsumae han]] in [[Ezo]] only once every six years.<ref>Gallery labels, Futagawa-juku honjin shiryôkan.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/45389881465/in/photostream/]</ref> Further, about thirty ''daimyô'', including the lord of the [[Mito Tokugawa clan]] and the members of the ''[[roju|rôjû]]'', were of a status known as ''jôfu'' (定府), and were primarily based in Edo, not spending any considerable amount of time in their domains.<ref>Ogawa, 78.</ref> ''Daimyô'' could also request, and be granted, exceptions from ''sankin kôtai'' on a one-time basis, when the lord was ill or the Edo mansion had burned down, or when the domain was fulfilling its obligations to the shogunate through corvée contributions to public works that year.<ref name=nagairei/>

The ''sankin kôtai'' system ensured a reliable flow of considerable numbers of elite travelers across the country, contributing considerably to both official and private construction of [[post-stations]] and inns (and their surrounding towns), lighthouses and port facilities, maintenance of highways, and expansion of travel-related services, such as networks of [[hikyaku|messengers]], [[toiyaba|porters, and horses]]. The Tôkaidô saw 146 ''sankin kôtai'' groups every year, in addition to Imperial envoys, shogunal officials, and others.<ref>Miyamoto, ''Nihon no shuku'', 174. Meanwhile, the Mutsu Highway (''Mutsu Dôchû'') saw 37 ''sankin kôtai'' groups each year, the [[Nakasendo|Nakasendô]] 30, the Mito Dôchû 23, the Nikkô Dôchû four, and the [[Koshu Kaido|Kôshû Kaidô]] three. Miyamoto, ''Daimyô no tabi'', 57.</ref> Such entourages typically moved about ten ''[[Japanese Measurements|ri]]'' a day,<ref>Yamamoto Hirofumi, ''Sankin kôtai'', Kodansha gendai shinsho (1998), 110.</ref> often passing through several post-stations where they stopped for lunch, tea, or short breaks, as they made their way to the station where they would spend the night. Special elite lodgings known as ''[[honjin]]'' and ''waki-honjin'', employed chiefly by ''daimyô'' traveling on ''sankin kôtai'', and by others of similar status, quickly became standard sights in most post-towns after the 1642 expansion of ''sankin kôtai'' obligations.<ref name=honjin53>Watanabe, 53.</ref> [[Corvee|Corvée]] labor was employed to provide a considerable portion of the porters, boatmen, and the like. Barrier checkpoints called ''[[sekisho]]'' were established along the highways to regulate travel; among their functions, too, was to enforce that firearms not be carried into Edo (so as to help prevent rebellion), and that women (who might be hostage members of ''daimyô'' families) not be allowed to leave.

The ''sankin kôtai'' system ensured a reliable flow of considerable numbers of elite travelers across the country, contributing considerably to both official and private construction of [[post-stations]] and inns (and their surrounding towns), lighthouses and port facilities, maintenance of highways, and expansion of travel-related services, such as networks of [[hikyaku|messengers]], [[toiyaba|porters, and horses]]. The Tôkaidô saw 146 ''sankin kôtai'' groups every year, in addition to Imperial envoys, shogunal officials, and others.<ref>Miyamoto, ''Nihon no shuku'', 174. Meanwhile, the Mutsu Highway (''Mutsu Dôchû'') saw 37 ''sankin kôtai'' groups each year, the [[Nakasendo|Nakasendô]] 30, the Mito Dôchû 23, the Nikkô Dôchû four, and the [[Koshu Kaido|Kôshû Kaidô]] three. Miyamoto, ''Daimyô no tabi'', 57.</ref> The routes to be taken by ''daimyô'' and other elites were predetermined by the shogunate, and it was illegal for such official entourages to travel by other routes without authorization.<ref>Gallery labels, Futagawa-juku honjin shiryôkan.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/31363646157/in/photostream/].</ref> Such entourages typically moved about ten ''[[Japanese Measurements|ri]]'' a day,<ref>Yamamoto Hirofumi, ''Sankin kôtai'', Kodansha gendai shinsho (1998), 110.</ref> setting out around 7 or 6 ''[[Telling Time|koku]]'' (before or around dawn),<ref name=kusatsu37>''Kokushitei shiseki Kusatsu-juku honjin'', Kusatsu, Shiga: Shiseki Kusatsujuku honjin (2014), 37.</ref> and passing through several post-stations where they stopped for lunch, tea, or short breaks, as they made their way to the station where they would spend the night. Many entourages stopped for "lunch" or a rest both before and after noon, having begun their travels so early in the morning each day.<ref name=kusatsu37/> Special elite lodgings known as ''[[honjin]]'' and ''waki-honjin'', employed chiefly by ''daimyô'' traveling on ''sankin kôtai'', and by others of similar status, quickly became standard sights in most post-towns after the 1642 expansion of ''sankin kôtai'' obligations.<ref name=honjin53>Watanabe, 53.</ref> [[Corvee|Corvée]] labor was employed to provide a considerable portion of the porters, boatmen, and the like. Barrier checkpoints called ''[[sekisho]]'' were established along the highways to regulate travel; among their functions, too, was to enforce that firearms not be carried into Edo (so as to help prevent rebellion), and that women (who might be hostage members of ''daimyô'' families) not be allowed to leave.

''Daimyô'' quickly came to establish regular schedules of reservations with particular ''honjin'', which knew to expect them on or around particular dates every year, and knew to prepare a reception in a particular fashion, with the ''daimyô'' paying a set amount of money in gratitude; by making this a regular, established, pattern, it helped avoid difficulties which might emerge from attempting to negotiate and re-negotiate dates, accommodations, and/or payment.<ref name=honjin53/> A larger ''honjin'' might provide lodgings for the ''daimyô'' and as many as sixty of his more esteemed retainers, while additional members of a samurai entourage (or [[Ryukyuan embassies to Edo|Ryukyuan]] or [[Korean embassies to Edo|Korean embassy]]) would stay at ''waki-honjin'', ''[[hatagoya]]'' (regular inns, also patronized by individual travelers), private homes, Buddhist temples, and/or Shinto shrines.<ref name=honjin53/> ''Honjin'' generally charged rates they themselves considered quite low, depending on supplemental payments of "''reikin''," or "gratitude money" - essentially, tips - and/or by gifts of special products from the ''daimyô's'' home province. However, for ''daimyô'' struggling with financial difficulties, these additional costs - paid to every ''honjin'' along the journey - could be quite a burden. From the mid-Edo period onwards, many ''daimyô'' began skipping mid-day rests at ''honjin'' along their travel routes, and stopping for food, tea, or a rest at roadside teashops and the like instead, in an effort to save money.<ref name=honjin54>Watanabe, 54.</ref>

''Daimyô'' quickly came to establish regular schedules of reservations with particular ''honjin'', which knew to expect them on or around particular dates every year, and knew to prepare a reception in a particular fashion, with the ''daimyô'' paying a set amount of money in gratitude; by making this a regular, established, pattern, it helped avoid difficulties which might emerge from attempting to negotiate and re-negotiate dates, accommodations, and/or payment.<ref name=honjin53/> A larger ''honjin'' might provide lodgings for the ''daimyô'' and as many as sixty of his more esteemed retainers, while additional members of a samurai entourage (or [[Ryukyuan embassies to Edo|Ryukyuan]] or [[Korean embassies to Edo|Korean embassy]]) would stay at ''waki-honjin'', ''[[hatagoya]]'' (regular inns, also patronized by individual travelers), private homes, Buddhist temples, and/or Shinto shrines.<ref name=honjin53/> ''Honjin'' generally charged rates they themselves considered quite low, depending on supplemental payments of "''reikin''," or "gratitude money" - essentially, tips - and/or by gifts of special products from the ''daimyô's'' home province. However, for ''daimyô'' struggling with financial difficulties, these additional costs - paid to every ''honjin'' along the journey - could be quite a burden. From the mid-Edo period onwards, many ''daimyô'' began skipping mid-day rests at ''honjin'' along their travel routes, and stopping for food, tea, or a rest at roadside teashops and the like instead, in an effort to save money.<ref name=honjin54>Watanabe, 54.</ref>