Changes

[[Matsuda Michiyuki]] arrived in Naha on 1879/1/25, and the following day presented to [[Nakijin Chofu|Prince Nakijin]] a missive from the [[Prime Minister]] reproaching Ryûkyû for breaking the prohibition imposed by Japan on sending [[Ryukyuan tribute missions to China|diplomatic missions to China]], and for obstructing the implementation of Japanese law enforcement and criminal administration in the islands. The following month, Beijing sent formal communications urging Tokyo to not annex Ryûkyû as a prefecture. [[Kinashi Seiichiro|Kinashi Seiichirô]] was named Acting Governor of the not yet established Okinawa Prefecture on 3/3.  

[[Matsuda Michiyuki]] arrived in Naha on 1879/1/25, and the following day presented to [[Nakijin Chofu|Prince Nakijin]] a missive from the [[Prime Minister]] reproaching Ryûkyû for breaking the prohibition imposed by Japan on sending [[Ryukyuan tribute missions to China|diplomatic missions to China]], and for obstructing the implementation of Japanese law enforcement and criminal administration in the islands. The following month, Beijing sent formal communications urging Tokyo to not annex Ryûkyû as a prefecture. [[Kinashi Seiichiro|Kinashi Seiichirô]] was named Acting Governor of the not yet established Okinawa Prefecture on 3/3.  

He was soon replaced by [[Nabeshima Naoyoshi]], appointed the first official governor of the prefecture. The second governor, [[Uesugi Mochinori]], supposedly out of genuine concern for the ordinary Okinawan people (i.e. commoners/peasants), was quite harsh on the traditional aristocracy, accusing them of having oppressed and impoverished the Ryukyuan people, and attempting to remove them from power and from elite status.<ref>Gregory Smits, ''Visions of Ryukyu'', University of Hawaii Press, (1999), 146-147.</ref> Much of these initiatives were reversed by his successor, the third governor, [[Iwamura Michitoshi]], however, who implemented a series of policies known as ''[[kyukan onzon|kyûkan onzon]]'' ("preserving old customs"). Under these policies, much of the kingdom's legal and administrative structures were left in place for a time, including incorporating many of the kingdom's experienced scholar-bureaucrats into positions of governmental administration. While many former scholar-bureaucrats accepted positions in the new government, many others, such as [[Ota Chofu|Ôta Chôfu]], protested by refusing to work, and refusing to aid the new officials in taking over the administration.<ref>Kerr, 402.</ref> This policy of maintaining old administrative structures was pursued, at least in part, as the result of concerns (perhaps quite valid concerns) by the [[Meiji government]] that abruptly dismantling these political and economic systems all at once could spark widespread popular resistance. Thus, all the way until [[1903]], the kingdom's systems of land divisions (''[[magiri]]''), taxation, and so forth, were left intact to a certain extent. While low-ranking Ryukyuan aristocrats lost their special status entirely, and no Ryukyuans outside of the royal family were incorporated into the ''kazoku'' or ''[[shizoku]]'' systems of gentry, middle- to high-ranking Ryukyuan aristocrats were at least permitted to retain their government stipends until [[1909]]; these were, however, paid out of the prefecture's budget, and not out of any separate additional funds granted to Okinawa by Tokyo. While [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]], also annexed by Imperial Japan in the 1870s, received considerable investment for development, Okinawa received very little from the government. All in all, throughout the Meiji period, Okinawa paid higher taxes per capita, and received less national expenditures per capita, than any other prefecture.<ref name=jahana102/>

He was soon replaced by [[Nabeshima Naoyoshi]], appointed the first official governor of the prefecture. The second governor, [[Uesugi Mochinori]], supposedly out of genuine concern for the ordinary Okinawan people (i.e. commoners/peasants), was quite harsh on the traditional aristocracy, accusing them of having oppressed and impoverished the Ryukyuan people, and attempting to remove them from power and from elite status.<ref>Gregory Smits, ''Visions of Ryukyu'', University of Hawaii Press, (1999), 146-147.</ref> Much of these initiatives were reversed by his successor, the third governor, [[Iwamura Michitoshi]], however, who implemented a series of policies known as ''[[kyukan onzon|kyûkan onzon]]'' ("preserving old customs"). Under these policies, much of the kingdom's legal and administrative structures were left in place for a time, including incorporating many of the kingdom's experienced scholar-bureaucrats into positions of governmental administration. While many former scholar-bureaucrats accepted positions in the new government, many others, such as [[Ota Chofu|Ôta Chôfu]], protested by refusing to work, and refusing to aid the new officials in taking over the administration.<ref>Kerr, 402.</ref> This policy of maintaining old administrative structures was pursued, at least in part, as the result of concerns (perhaps quite valid concerns) by the [[Meiji government]] that abruptly dismantling these political and economic systems all at once could spark widespread popular resistance. Thus, all the way until [[1903]], the kingdom's systems of land divisions (''[[magiri]]''), taxation, and so forth, were left intact to a certain extent. While low-ranking Ryukyuan aristocrats lost their special status entirely, and no Ryukyuans outside of the royal family were incorporated into the ''kazoku'' or ''[[shizoku]]'' systems of gentry, middle- to high-ranking Ryukyuan aristocrats were at least permitted to retain their government stipends until [[1909]]; these were, however, paid out of the prefecture's budget, and not out of any separate additional funds granted to Okinawa by Tokyo. While [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]], similarly annexed by Imperial Japan in [[1869]], received considerable investment for development, Okinawa received very little from the government. All in all, throughout the Meiji period, Okinawa paid higher taxes per capita, and received less national expenditures per capita, than any other prefecture.<ref name=jahana102/>

Land divisions and the associated tax structure were reorganized in a major undertaking in [[1899]] to 1903 known as the [[Okinawa Prefecture Land Reorganization Project]], bringing practices in Okinawa into line with systems used throughout the rest of the country. This included converting much communal land into private property, and eliminating the payment of taxes in kind (i.e. in grain or other products), and replacing it with payment in cash.<ref>Plaques on-site at [[Gokoku Shrine]].</ref>

Land divisions and the associated tax structure were reorganized in a major undertaking in [[1899]] to 1903 known as the [[Okinawa Prefecture Land Reorganization Project]], bringing practices in Okinawa into line with systems used throughout the rest of the country. This included converting much communal land into private property, and eliminating the payment of taxes in kind (i.e. in grain or other products), and replacing it with payment in cash.<ref>Plaques on-site at [[Gokoku Shrine]].</ref>

Mainland businesses began to expand into Okinawa, even seizing monopolistic levels of dominance in many locales and commercial sectors, pushing Okinawan local/native merchants and entrepreneurs into far weaker positions, or out of business entirely.<ref>Kerr, 398.</ref> Facing considerable economic difficulties, not to mention in at least some cases cultural and/or political opposition to Japanese assimilation, many Okinawans began to emigrate to Hawaii, Latin America, and elsewhere. Okinawa was one of the top prefectures from which people emigrated in the late Meiji period, and Hawaii continues today to be the home of the largest Okinawan diasporic community in the world. The first Okinawan immigrants arrived in Hawaii in [[1900]], and immigration peaked in [[1906]], with nearly 4,500 people arriving in that year.

Mainland businesses began to expand into Okinawa, even seizing monopolistic levels of dominance in many locales and commercial sectors, pushing Okinawan local/native merchants and entrepreneurs into far weaker positions, or out of business entirely.<ref>Kerr, 398.</ref> Facing considerable economic difficulties, not to mention in at least some cases cultural and/or political opposition to Japanese assimilation, many Okinawans began to emigrate to Hawaii, Latin America, and elsewhere. Okinawa was one of the top prefectures from which people emigrated in the late Meiji period, and Hawaii continues today to be the home of the largest Okinawan diasporic community in the world. The first Okinawan immigrants arrived in Hawaii in [[1900]], and immigration peaked in [[1906]], with nearly 4,500 people arriving in that year.

Around the time of the [[Sino-Japanese War]], Okinawan politics came to be dominated by conflict or tensions between a pro-Japanese ''[[Kaika-to|Kaika-tô]]'' ("Enlightenment Party") and a pro-Chinese ''[[Ganko-to|Gankô-tô]]'' ("Stubborn Party").<ref>"Ōta Chōfu." ''Okinawa rekishi jinmei jiten'' (沖縄歴史人名事典, "Encyclopedia of People in Okinawan History"). Naha: Okinawa Bunka-sha, 2002. p15.</ref>

Around the time of the [[Sino-Japanese War]], Okinawan politics came to be dominated by conflict or tensions between a pro-Japanese ''[[Kaika-to|Kaika-tô]]'' ("Enlightenment Party") and a pro-Chinese ''[[Ganko-to|Ganko-tô]]'' ("Stubborn Party").<ref>"Ōta Chōfu." ''Okinawa rekishi jinmei jiten'' (沖縄歴史人名事典, "Encyclopedia of People in Okinawan History"). Naha: Okinawa Bunka-sha, 2002. p15.</ref> Japanese victory in that war, however, strengthened or solidified popular conceptions of Japanese military/political strength, and the idea that Japanese control over Okinawa was not going to be undone; anti-Japanese activism declined, and by [[1903]],  the ''kyûkan onzon'' policies were lifted.<ref>Junko Kobayashi, "The Demise of Ryukyuan Painting," Okinawan Art in its Regional Context symposium, University of East Anglia, Norwich, 10 Oct 2019.</ref>

Not only Japanese modern popular culture, but foreign culture as well, began to gain widespread currency in Okinawa. The first American film ever shown there was one about the Spanish-American War, screened in [[1902]].

Not only Japanese modern popular culture, but foreign culture as well, began to gain widespread currency in Okinawa. The first American film ever shown there was one about the Spanish-American War, screened in [[1902]].

====Battle of Okinawa====

====Battle of Okinawa====

[[File:Okinawa-battlemap.jpg|right|thumb|380px|Map of the Battle of Okinawa at Punchbowl Cemetery in Honolulu]]

[[File:Okinawa-battlemap.jpg|right|thumb|380px|Map of the Battle of Okinawa at Punchbowl Cemetery in Honolulu]]

The Imperial Japanese military established a headquarters beneath Shuri castle, and fortified much of Okinawa Island into a major base of military strength, leading it to become an important target for Allied forces to address as they pressed their way towards Japan proper in the final stages of World War II. Much of Naha was destroyed in a major bombing raid on 10 October 1944, typically known simply as the "10-10 Bombing Raid." Allied forces first made landfall on Okinawa on 1 April 1945, declaring on that same day, in what has come to be known as the Nimitz Proclamation, the end of “All Executive Powers of the Japanese Empire” in Okinawa.<ref name=mabuni>Gallery labels, Okinawa Peace Memorial Museum, Itoman, Okinawa.</ref> The ensuing Battle of Okinawa would last several months, with fighting continuing until late June 1945.  

The Imperial Japanese military established a headquarters beneath Shuri castle, and fortified much of Okinawa Island into a major base of military strength, leading it to become an important target for Allied forces to address as they pressed their way towards Japan proper in the final stages of World War II. Much of Naha was destroyed in a major bombing raid on 10 October 1944, typically known simply as the "10-10 Bombing Raid."<ref>More than 1000 planes launched from a carrier task force, attacked in five waves, attacking Naha as well as airfields and port facilities elsewhere on Okinawa and the immediately surrounding islands (including [[Iejima]], [[Tsuken]], and [[Hamahiga Island]]). Ninety percent of Naha was destroyed in the resulting fires; 668 soldiers and civilians were killed, and 758 injured. The bombing raid was also an opportunity for the US military to take aerial photos of Okinawa. The same air task force then attacked targets in the [[Yaeyama Islands]] and [[Taiwan]] beginning on October 12. It swiftly defeated the Japanese air force sent against it. ''Okinawa ken heiwa kinen shiryôkan sôgô annai'' 沖縄県平和祈念資料館総合案内 ("General Catalog of Okinawa Peace Memorial Museum"), Nanjô, Okinawa: Okinawa Peace Memorial Museum (2004), 50-51.</ref> Fearing a land invasion of Okinawa, as many as 70,000 people fled Okinawa to Kyushu or Taiwan by March 1945; many others fled north from central and southern parts of Okinawa Island into the forests of [[Yanbaru]] in the north of the island.<ref>Local government established centers to provide for these people in Yanbaru, but food and other supplies quickly ran out, and many succumbed to starvation or malaria. ''Okinawa ken heiwa kinen shiryôkan sôgô annai'', 52-53.</ref>

Often known in Okinawa as the "Typhoon of Steel" (鉄の暴風, ''tetsu no bôfû''), the Battle of Okinawa was one of the bloodiest battles of the entire war. One of the largest naval fleets in history bombarded the island with shells, and by the time the fighting was over, much of the central and southern parts of the island were decimated. Some 100,000 Okinawans died during the Battle, representing roughly a quarter to a third of the total Okinawan population. Countless priceless artifacts and documents were lost as well, along with most of the island's significant cultural, religious, and historical sites.

 

Often known in Okinawa as the "Typhoon of Steel" (鉄の暴風, ''tetsu no bôfû''), the Battle of Okinawa was one of the bloodiest battles of the entire war. One of the largest naval fleets in history bombarded the island with shells,<ref>"Operation Iceberg," as it was termed by the US military, included some 1,500 naval vessels and 548,000 troops. It's estimated that 6.8 million shells were fired at the Kyan peninsula alone, in just one month of the battle. ''Okinawa ken heiwa kinen shiryôkan sôgô annai'', 59, 69.</ref> and by the time the fighting was over, much of the central and southern parts of the island were decimated. Some 100,000 Okinawans died during the Battle, representing roughly a quarter to a third of the total Okinawan population. Countless priceless artifacts and documents were lost as well, along with most of the island's significant cultural, religious, and historical sites. Perhaps as much as 3,000 tons of unexploded ordnance remains on the island; some estimates wager it would take fifty years to clear it all.<ref>''Okinawa ken heiwa kinen shiryôkan sôgô annai'', 69.</ref>

===Occupation===

===Occupation===

Following the end of World War II, Allied forces occupied Japan, placing it under martial law. For the next seven years or so, up until 1952, Gen. Douglas MacArthur and his SCAP offices oversaw considerable rebuilding efforts, as well as changes in the education system, reorganization of government and economy, and so forth. A weak civilian government was permitted to operate, and political parties were allowed to be formed in 1947, but the following year, the US stepped up its military control of the islands, and considered holding onto the archipelago permanently.<ref name=siddle135>Richard Siddle, "Return to Uchinâ," in Siddle and Glenn Hook (eds.), ''Japan and Okinawa: Structure and Subjectivity'', Routledge Curzon (2002), 135.</ref> A September 1947 letter from a W.J. Sebold, addressed to the US Secretary of State, relates that according to Japanese diplomat Terasaki Hidenari, the Emperor supports the long-term Occupation of the Ryukyus, in order to show the rest of Japan “that the US has no ulterior motives and would welcome US Occupation for military purposes.”<ref name=mabuni/>

Following the end of World War II, Allied forces occupied Japan, placing it under martial law. For the next seven years or so, up until 1952, Gen. Douglas MacArthur and his SCAP offices oversaw considerable rebuilding efforts, as well as changes in the education system, reorganization of government and economy, and so forth. A weak civilian government was permitted to operate, and political parties were allowed to be formed in 1947, but the following year, the US stepped up its military control of the islands, and considered holding onto the archipelago permanently.<ref name=siddle135>Richard Siddle, "Return to Uchinâ," in Siddle and Glenn Hook (eds.), ''Japan and Okinawa: Structure and Subjectivity'', Routledge Curzon (2002), 135.</ref> A September 1947 letter from a W.J. Sebold, addressed to the US Secretary of State, relates that according to Japanese diplomat Terasaki Hidenari, the Emperor supports the long-term Occupation of the Ryukyus, in order to show the rest of Japan “that the US has no ulterior motives and would welcome US Occupation for military purposes.”<ref name=mabuni/>

Throughout the Battle, and into the early months of the postwar, Okinawan civilians were gathered into refugee camps (J: ''shûyôjo''). Ostensibly, this was for their protection (during the Battle), and so that Allied forces could attend to their food, shelter, and other needs amidst the destruction, and the rebuilding which had not yet taken place. The first of these camps was established almost immediately after the first Allied landing in April 1945; by the end of the war there were 16 civilian camps, in addition to those where prisoners of war (POWs) were held. On August 15, 1945, the day of Imperial Japan's formal surrender, representatives from each of the refugee camps were brought to Ishikawa (now part of [[Uruma]] City, on Okinawa Island) to form an Okinawa Advisory Council. Occupation authorities then held elections within the camps on September 20 and 25, to form civilian government which would oversee matters within the camps, including the distribution of rations and the announcement and implementation of Occupation authorities' orders. In these elections, all men and women over the age of 25 were permitted to vote, and to be elected to office. Okinawans were finally permitted to leave the camps to return to rebuild their homes, and their lives, beginning in late October 1945; however, in the meantime, Occupation authorities already unilaterally seized large tracts of land for military bases, and so many Okinawans returned to their villages to find the area inaccessible, surrounded by barbed wire fences.<ref name=mabuni/>

Throughout the Battle, and into the early months of the postwar, Okinawan civilians were gathered into refugee camps (J: ''shûyôjo''). Ostensibly, this was for their protection (during the Battle), and so that Allied forces could attend to their food, shelter, and other needs amidst the destruction, and the rebuilding which had not yet taken place. The first of these camps was established almost immediately after the first Allied landing in April 1945; by the end of the war there were 16 civilian camps, in addition to those where prisoners of war (POWs) were held. On August 15, 1945, the day of Imperial Japan's formal surrender, representatives from each of the refugee camps were brought to Ishikawa (now part of [[Uruma]] City, on Okinawa Island) to form an Okinawa Advisory Council. Occupation authorities then held elections within the camps on September 20 and 25, to form civilian government which would oversee matters within the camps, including the distribution of rations and the announcement and implementation of Occupation authorities' orders. In these elections, all men and women over the age of 25 were permitted to vote, and to be elected to office. Okinawans were finally permitted to leave the camps to return to rebuild their homes, and their lives, beginning in late October 1945. The US military provided 2x4s and other basic materials to Okinawan construction workers for the construction of some 75,000 basic homes known in Okinawa as ''kikakuyaa'' 規格家.<ref>Okinawa Taimusu Shurijō shuzaihan 沖縄タイムス首里城取材班, ''Shurijō: shōchō ni naru made'' 首里城：象徴になるまで, Okinawa Times (2021), 82.</ref> However, in the meantime, Occupation authorities had already also unilaterally seized large tracts of land for military bases, and so many Okinawans returned to their villages to find the area inaccessible, surrounded by barbed wire fences.<ref name=mabuni/>

The population of the prefecture recovered quickly after the Battle, with some 124,000 returnees + new settlers bringing the population back up over 500,000 within a year of the end of the war.<ref name=popchart/> After that, however, even as the population continued to grow steadily, Occupation policies made it difficult for Okinawans and Japanese to travel between Okinawa and mainland Japan. As early as 1946, Okinawans resident in Tokyo began pushing for Okinawa's reversion, that it should be reintegrated into Japan.<ref name=mabuni/> A group in [[Kansai]], meanwhile, formed the ''Okinawajin Renmei'' (Okinawans' League) to help aid these "refugees" and to petition the government for assistance. Okinawan groups in Hawaii and elsewhere overseas gathered large amounts of money, pigs, goats, and other supplies to ship to Okinawa, to contribute to the well-being of their fellow Okinawans, and to rebuilding efforts.<ref>Shari Tamashiro, "[http://sharitamashiro.com/ Pigs from the Sea]," blog/website.</ref>

The population of the prefecture recovered quickly after the Battle, with some 124,000 returnees + new settlers bringing the population back up over 500,000 within a year of the end of the war.<ref name=popchart/> After that, however, even as the population continued to grow steadily, Occupation policies made it difficult for Okinawans and Japanese to travel between Okinawa and mainland Japan. As early as 1946, Okinawans resident in Tokyo began pushing for Okinawa's reversion, that it should be reintegrated into Japan.<ref name=mabuni/> A group in [[Kansai]], meanwhile, formed the ''Okinawajin Renmei'' (Okinawans' League) to help aid these "refugees" and to petition the government for assistance. Okinawan groups in Hawaii and elsewhere overseas gathered large amounts of money, pigs, goats, and other supplies to ship to Okinawa, to contribute to the well-being of their fellow Okinawans, and to rebuilding efforts.<ref>Shari Tamashiro, "[http://sharitamashiro.com/ Pigs from the Sea]," blog/website.</ref>

#[[Hibi Kimei]] (1908-)

#[[Hibi Kimei]] (1908-)

...

...

==References==

==References==