Changes

In most areas, where people were willing to submit to Mongol authority, the people and their cities and livelihoods were largely spared. Mongol forces took artisans in order to expand their technology, but for the most part allowed conquered peoples to continue to rule themselves (while obeying the overarching Mongol ''jasagh'' legal code, paying [[tribute]], and so forth). A courier system of fast, well-networked, post horses linked the empire, allowing for swift communications, and the great peace brought in the wake of Mongol attacks allowed for a great increase in trade within the massive, and relatively orderly Mongol Empire, from Beijing to Moscow.

In most areas, where people were willing to submit to Mongol authority, the people and their cities and livelihoods were largely spared. Mongol forces took artisans in order to expand their technology, but for the most part allowed conquered peoples to continue to rule themselves (while obeying the overarching Mongol ''jasagh'' legal code, paying [[tribute]], and so forth). A courier system of fast, well-networked, post horses linked the empire, allowing for swift communications, and the great peace brought in the wake of Mongol attacks allowed for a great increase in trade within the massive, and relatively orderly Mongol Empire, from Beijing to Moscow.

[[Kublai Khan]], a grandson of Genghis Khan, became Great Khan in [[1260]], and completed the conquest of China. The [[Southern Song Dynasty]] held out against Mongol attacks for about 45 years, far longer than most regions, but eventually succumbed, giving way to the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty in 1279. [[Yunnan province]] and parts of Burma fell in the 1270s as well, allowing the Khan to threaten Cambodia; however, the Mongols never did succeed in taking any significant amount of Khmer or Vietnamese land. A Mongol script was developed in [[1269]] and quickly came to be used in official documents throughout the empire. In the meantime, however, in [[1264]] the great Mongol Empire was split in four; Kublai remained Great Khan, and passed on this title to his successors, while others came to rule the Ilkhanate of Persia, the Chagatai Khanate of Central Asia (ruling over areas including Ili, Bukhara, Samarkand, and Kashgar), and the Khanate of the Golden Horde (including Moscow, Kiev, and a significant area to the east of that, in what is today Russia).

[[Kublai Khan]], a grandson of Genghis Khan, became Great Khan in [[1260]], and completed the conquest of China. The [[Southern Song Dynasty]] held out against Mongol attacks for about 45 years, far longer than most regions, but eventually succumbed, giving way to the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty in 1279. [[Yunnan province]] and parts of Burma fell in the 1270s as well, allowing the Khan to threaten Cambodia; however, the Mongols never did succeed in taking any significant amount of Khmer or Vietnamese land. The Vietnamese defeated Mongol invasion attempts three times, most notably in [[1257]].<ref>Ge Zhaoguang, Michael Gibbs Hill (trans.), ''What is China?'', Belknap Press (2018), 6-7.</ref> A Mongol script was developed in [[1269]] and quickly came to be used in official documents throughout the empire. In the meantime, however, in [[1264]] the great Mongol Empire was split in four. Kublai remained Great Khan, and passed on this title to his successors, while his brother Hulegu and his successors came to rule the Ilkhanate of Persia. Others ruled the Chagatai Khanate of Central Asia (ruling over areas including Ili, Bukhara, Samarkand, and Kashgar), and the Khanate of the Golden Horde (including Moscow, Kiev, and a significant area to the east of that, in what is today Russia).

Kublai Khan sent emissaries to Japan on several occasions, in [[1266]], [[1268]], [[1271]], and [[1272]], demanding that the [[Kamakura shogunate]] submit to Mongol suzerainty. The Japanese refused on every occasion, and the Mongols eventually launched two invasion attempts against Japan, in 1274, and 1281. Both ultimately failed; Kublai Khan planned a third, but it was never launched. In the meantime, attempts to invaded Ryûkyû in 1291 and 1296, and Java in [[1293]], similarly failed. Kublai Khan died in [[1294]].

Kublai Khan sent emissaries to Japan on several occasions, in [[1266]], [[1268]], [[1271]], and [[1272]], demanding that the [[Kamakura shogunate]] submit to Mongol suzerainty. The Japanese refused on every occasion, and the Mongols eventually launched two invasion attempts against Japan, in 1274, and 1281. Both ultimately failed; Kublai Khan planned a third, but it was never launched. In the meantime, attempts to invaded Ryûkyû in 1291 and 1296, and Java in [[1293]], similarly failed. Kublai Khan died in [[1294]].

==Post-Yuan==

==Post-Yuan==

Mongol groups continued to clash with the Ming from time to time. One prominent battle, the [[Battle of Tumu]], took place in [[1449]].<ref>Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 385.</ref> Another Mongol group came as far as the gates of Beijing in [[1550]], but left without attacking the city.

Mongol groups continued to clash with the Ming from time to time. One prominent battle, the [[Battle of Tumu]], took place in [[1449]].<ref>Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 385.</ref> Another Mongol group came as far as the gates of Beijing in [[1550]], but left without attacking the city. Many of the Mongol tribes were united under Altan Khan around that time, and marauded along as much as one thousand miles of China's northern border. Each raid could involve as many as 100,000 mounted warriors, and while they never made much headway into Chinese lands (that was not their intention), neither were they ever defeated or stopped by the relatively sparse and disorganized Ming armies.<ref>Ray Huang, ''1587: A Year of No Significance'', Yale University Press (1981), 175.</ref> This continued until, in [[1570]]-[[1571]], they submitted to the Ming Emperor, swearing to cease their raiding forever, in exchange for trade privileges and annual gifts or payments. Altan was granted title as a Ming "prince," and several of his chief followers were granted lands and titles as well; the Khan promised to discipline his people harshly should any of them break the agreement terminating border raids. This also meant the Ming were bound, too, to remain at peace with the Mongols, and not launch attacks on them without sufficient provocation.<ref name=huang108>Huang, 108-109.</ref>

 

Under the Qing Dynasty ([[1644]]-[[1911]]), Mongols enjoyed a position similar to that of the second category of steppe nomads under the Yuan. Qing civil and military leadership was divided into three groups of "banners": eight Manchu banners, eight Mongol banners, and eight "martial" Chinese banners, a group similar to that of the northern Chinese under the Yuan, consisting essentially of those Chinese already allied with the Manchus prior to the Qing conquest. Members of the Mongol banners lived in fortified sections of the major cities separated out from the Chinese commoners' city, and from the districts of the Manchu and "martial Chinese" banners, with all of the banners being subject to a separate system of governance from the Chinese.

Under the Qing Dynasty ([[1644]]-[[1911]]), Mongols enjoyed a position similar to that of the second category of steppe nomads under the Yuan. Qing civil and military leadership was divided into three groups of "banners": eight Manchu banners, eight Mongol banners, and eight "martial" Chinese banners, a group similar to that of the northern Chinese under the Yuan, consisting essentially of those Chinese already allied with the Manchus prior to the Qing conquest. Members of the Mongol banners lived in fortified sections of the major cities separated out from the Chinese commoners' city, and from the districts of the Manchu and "martial Chinese" banners, with all of the banners being subject to a separate system of governance from the Chinese.