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*''Japanese'': 北海道 ''(Hokkaidô)''

*''Japanese'': 北海道 ''(Hokkaidô)''

Hokkaidô is the northernmost of the four main islands of the [[Japanese archipelago]] and the northernmost [[prefecture]] in the country. Long existing on the borders of, or outside of, the Japanese state, the land of Hokkaidô (and surrounding islands) was long home to the [[Ainu]] and other indigenous peoples; while the Ainu referred to the territory as Ainu Mosir ("Ainu land") or Yaun Mosir ("the country land"), Japanese long referred to it as Ezo or Ezochi, a barbarian land. Ethnic Japanese first began settling in Ainu Mosir by the 15th century, if not earlier, though fuller settler colonialism and state control of the territory would not take place until the 19th century. When discussed in contrast to the Ainu and other indigenous peoples of Hokkaidô and surrounding areas, ethnic Japanese are known as Wajin 和人.

Hokkaidô is the northernmost of the four main islands of the [[Japanese archipelago]] and the northernmost [[prefecture]] in the country. It is by far the largest prefecture, covering more than 83,000 sq km (in comparison to the second largest, [[Iwate prefecture]], at around 15,000 sq km), and extends from 45 degrees north latitude at its northernmost point, [[Wakanai]], to 41 degrees north latitude at [[Matsumae]], the southernmost point on the island. Hokkaidô is the only prefecture to not employ the characters ''ken'' 県, ''fu'' 府, or ''to'' 都, meaning "prefecture," in its name.

In the [[Edo period]], the [[Matsumae clan]], based at [[Matsumae castle]] near the southern tip of the island, was the sole samurai clan handling relations with the Ainu. At times, they expanded their administrative efforts to organize extraction from Ainu fishing groups, and at times to assimilate the Ainu into Japanese ways. Japanese (Wajin) expansion into greater settlement of Ezochi and stronger administration of it came in large part in reaction to [[Russia]]n expansion into the territory beginning in the 1790s.  

 

In the [[Edo period]], the [[Matsumae clan]], based at [[Matsumae castle]] near the southern tip of the island, was the sole samurai clan handling relations with the Ainu. At times, they expanded their administrative efforts to organize extraction from Ainu fishing groups, and at times to assimilate the Ainu into Japanese ways. Japanese (Wajin) expansion into greater settlement of Ezochi and stronger administration of it came in large part in reaction to [[Mauritius Augustus Count de Benyowsky|false reports]] in the 1770s of Russian attack plans against Matsumae,<ref>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 102.</ref> followed by actual [[Russia]]n incursions and expansion into the northernmost parts of the territory beginning in the 1790s.  

Matsumae domain and the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] claimed control of the entire territory for brief periods early in the 19th century, but their ''de facto'' on-the-ground control was always rather less than total. The Empire of Japan ([[Meiji government]]) formally claimed and annexed the territory, however, in [[1869]], renaming it Hokkaidô ("Northern Sea Route") and establishing formal colonial settlement and land development efforts. Over the ensuing decades, the Ainu people were thoroughly dispossessed of their lands and livelihoods, and subjected to harsh assimilation policies.

Matsumae domain and the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] claimed control of the entire territory for brief periods early in the 19th century, but their ''de facto'' on-the-ground control was always rather less than total. The Empire of Japan ([[Meiji government]]) formally claimed and annexed the territory, however, in [[1869]], renaming it Hokkaidô ("Northern Sea Route") and establishing formal colonial settlement and land development efforts. Over the ensuing decades, the Ainu people were thoroughly dispossessed of their lands and livelihoods, and subjected to harsh assimilation policies.

Throughout this period, while Wajin and Ainu remained distinct populations for the most part, that distinction was porous. In the early Edo period, Ainu who had been living among Wajin were encouraged, or even forced, to relocate, deeper into Ezochi. They were forbidden to speak Japanese, or to dress in the Japanese fashion, and were discouraged from farming. As the shogunate's constructions of its ideological legitimacy developed, it became increasingly desirable, even necessary, that the Ainu be a foreign, exotic, people who paid tribute or otherwise formally recognized the superiority, or centrality, of Japanese civilization.<ref>Morris-Suzuki, "The Frontiers of Japanese Identity," 51.</ref>  

Throughout this period, while Wajin and Ainu remained distinct populations for the most part, that distinction was porous. In the early Edo period, Ainu who had been living among Wajin were encouraged, or even forced, to relocate, deeper into Ezochi. They were forbidden to speak Japanese, or to dress in the Japanese fashion, and were discouraged from farming. As the shogunate's constructions of its ideological legitimacy developed, it became increasingly desirable, even necessary, that the Ainu be a foreign, exotic, people who paid tribute or otherwise formally recognized the superiority, or centrality, of Japanese civilization.<ref>Morris-Suzuki, "The Frontiers of Japanese Identity," 51.</ref>  

Later in the period, however, Ainu could come to be regarded as Wajin, by adopting Wajin names and lifeways, and Wajin could abandon such lifeways and come to be regarded by Wajin communities as having become Ainu, though it is unclear to what extent such individuals were ever accepted and incorporated into Ainu communities. In response to Russian encroachment in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the shogunate took control to part or all of Ezochi in [[1799]] and again in [[1807]], returning authority fully to the Matsumae domain in [[1821]]. During this time, the shogunate and/or the domain made explicit efforts at times to promote Ainu assimilation into Wajin lifeways and communities - or even to force this upon Ainu communities - incorporating the Ainu and their land more strongly and more explicitly into Wajin territory. According to some sources, by [[1800]], only about half the people in Ezochi were regarded as Ainu.<ref>Schirokauer, et al, ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 134.</ref> When fears of the Russian threat subsided, these assimilation efforts were relaxed or even reversed, however, as suited the political expediencies of the moment.

Later in the period, however, Ainu could come to be regarded as Wajin, by adopting Wajin names and lifeways, and Wajin could abandon such lifeways and come to be regarded by Wajin communities as having become Ainu, though it is unclear to what extent such individuals were ever accepted and incorporated into Ainu communities. In response to Russian encroachment in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the shogunate took control to part or all of Ezochi in [[1799]] and again in [[1807]], assigning [[Hirosaki han|Hirosaki]] and [[Sendai han|Sendai domains]] to contribute to the defense of the territory before returning authority fully to the Matsumae domain in [[1821]]. During this time, the shogunate and/or the domain made explicit efforts at times to promote Ainu assimilation into Wajin lifeways and communities - or even to force this upon Ainu communities - incorporating the Ainu and their land more strongly and more explicitly into Wajin territory. According to some sources, by [[1800]], only about half the people in Ezochi were regarded as Ainu.<ref>Schirokauer, et al, ''A Brief History of Japanese Civilization'', Wadsworth Cengage (2013), 134.</ref> When fears of the Russian threat subsided, these assimilation efforts were relaxed or even reversed, however, as suited the political expediencies of the moment.

The [[1855]] [[Treaty of Shimoda]] resolved these tensions between Russia and Japan to a certain extent, as it declared [[Iturup]] and all the islands to the south of it, including Hokkaidô, to be Japanese territory, though it left the question of [[Sakhalin]] unresolved.

The [[1855]] [[Treaty of Shimoda]] resolved these tensions between Russia and Japan to a certain extent, as it declared [[Iturup]] and all the islands to the south of it, including Hokkaidô, to be Japanese territory, though it left the question of [[Sakhalin]] unresolved.