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Due to the relatively large samurai population, which strained the domain's ability to support them solely with rice stipends, many lower-ranking samurai were resettled in the countryside, and became a sort of rural gentry, supporting themselves through agriculture, the overseeing of agriculture, or other commercial or semi-commercial activities. Though in most domains samurai were removed from the countryside and given residences in the [[castle town]], this is one example of where realities differed from the generalization.<ref>Ravina, 10.</ref>
Due to the relatively large samurai population, which strained the domain's ability to support them solely with rice stipends, many lower-ranking samurai were resettled in the countryside, and became a sort of rural gentry, supporting themselves through agriculture, the overseeing of agriculture, or other commercial or semi-commercial activities. Though in most domains samurai were removed from the countryside and given residences in the [[castle town]], this is one example of where realities differed from the generalization.<ref>Ravina, 10.</ref>
At the beginning of the [[Meiji period]], the domain had a population of roughly 230,000 commoners and just over 4300 retainers, making for a ratio of 1.89 retainers being supported by each 100 commoners. This ratio was nearly double that of [[Tokushima han]] (1.06), but far lower than, for example, [[Yonezawa han]] (6.77). However, Hirosaki was particularly hard hit in the [[Great Tenmei Famine|Tenmei]] (1780s) and [[Tenpo famine|Tenpô famines]] (1830s), making the population far more variable than in many other domains.<ref>Ravina, 118-119.</ref>
At the beginning of the [[Meiji period]], the domain had a population of roughly 230,000 commoners and just over 4300 retainers, making for a ratio of 1.89 retainers being supported by each 100 commoners. This ratio was nearly double that of [[Tokushima han]] (1.06), but far lower than, for example, [[Yonezawa han]] (6.77). However, Hirosaki was particularly hard hit in the [[Great Tenmei Famine|Tenmei]] (1780s) and [[Tenpo famine|Tenpô famines]] (1830s), losing over 80,000 people in each, and making the population far more variable than in many other domains.<ref>Ravina, 118-119, 128-129, 147.</ref>
Relying far more heavily on rice agriculture than on any proto-industrial production or regional specialty cash crops, Hirosaki undertook land reclamation efforts to a great extent than the vast majority of other domains. Over the course of the Edo period, the domain saw a 623% increase in its arable land, and a 528% increase in the number of villages, going from 133 villages in 1600 to 836 in [[1872]], with the domain's ''uchidaka'' (internally assessed ''kokudaka'', as opposed to the officially externally designated figure) rising from 47,000 ''koku'' to 340,000 over that same period. Reclaimed land was generally categorized in one of two ways: when a retainer worked to reclaim an area of land, it might be added to his [[subinfeudation|fief]] or made a small fief (''kochigyô'') unto itself, thus providing a direct source of income for that retainer, or it might be declared ''kurachi'' ("treasury land"), contributing to the domainal government's treasuries. Either way, it worked to relieve the financial burden on the domainal government's obligations to pay [[stipends]] to its retainers. The burden was further eased by a policy known as ''dochaku'', which placed samurai out in the countryside and required them to, essentially, at least in some respects, become farmers, undertaking agricultural work to earn their own living.<ref>Ravina, 120.</ref>
Relying far more heavily on rice agriculture than on any proto-industrial production or regional specialty cash crops, Hirosaki undertook land reclamation efforts to a great extent than the vast majority of other domains. Over the course of the Edo period, the domain saw a 623% increase in its arable land, and a 528% increase in the number of villages, going from 133 villages in 1600 to 836 in [[1872]], with the domain's ''uchidaka'' (internally assessed ''kokudaka'', as opposed to the officially externally designated figure) rising from 47,000 ''koku'' to 340,000 over that same period. Reclaimed land was generally categorized in one of two ways: when a retainer worked to reclaim an area of land, it might be added to his [[subinfeudation|fief]] or made a small fief (''kochigyô'') unto itself, thus providing a direct source of income for that retainer, or it might be declared ''kurachi'' ("treasury land"), contributing to the domainal government's treasuries. Either way, it worked to relieve the financial burden on the domainal government's obligations to pay [[stipends]] to its retainers. The burden was further eased by a policy known as ''dochaku'', which placed samurai out in the countryside and required them to, essentially, at least in some respects, become farmers, undertaking agricultural work to earn their own living.<ref>Ravina, 120.</ref>
Even so, like most Edo period domains, Hirosaki saw considerable financial difficulties over the course of the period. A famine in [[1695]] killed roughly 30,000 people in Hirosaki domain, and led to the domain government cutting retainer stipends in half and borrowing from the shogunate. Stipends were cut in half again in [[1750]], after repeated harvest/budget difficulties in the early 18th century, and by 1754, the domain owed more than 300,000 ''[[currency|ryô]]'' to merchants, and held total debts amounting to more than double the domain's annual tax revenues.<ref>Ravina, 122-123.</ref>
Even so, like most Edo period domains, Hirosaki saw considerable financial difficulties over the course of the period. A famine in [[1695]] killed roughly 30,000 people in Hirosaki domain, and led to the domain government cutting retainer stipends in half and borrowing from the shogunate. Stipends were cut in half again in [[1750]], after repeated harvest/budget difficulties in the early 18th century, and by 1754, the domain owed more than 300,000 ''[[currency|ryô]]'' to merchants, and held total debts amounting to more than double the domain's annual tax revenues.<ref>Ravina, 122-123.</ref>
The domain undertook a more serious and widespread policy of ''dochaku'', resettling samurai in the countryside, in the 1790s. This was done both in order to alleviate socioeconomic problems of the domain's waning finances (by allowing samurai to simply farm their own land and earn their own income, rather than relying on the domainal stores), and as part of philosophies or ideologies that this would return the samurai/peasant relationship to an earlier, more balanced, form. Many retainers resisted, however, seeing this merely as a way of cutting their stipends, while many rural elites saw the resettled samurai as disrupting or displacing their own local elite status. The project was abandoned by [[1798]], in response to the opposition, though in [[1803]], the domain once again allowed samurai to move to the countryside if they so chose; those who elected to do so, however, would be giving up their samurai status.<ref>Ravina, 136-140.</ref>
Due to the domain's location, it was obligated beginning around 1800 to aid in the military defense of [[Ezo]] ([[Hokkaido|Hokkaidô]]) against Russian incursions, receiving a reduction in its ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' obligations in return. By 1809, Hirosaki had 400 troops regularly stationed in [[Matsumae han|Matsumae domain]]. The defense of the north was more fully entrusted to Matsumae beginning in [[1822]], though Hirosaki was still expected to provide additional troops in case of emergency.<ref>Ravina, 152.</ref>
==Bakumatsu & Meiji==
==Bakumatsu & Meiji==
As in [[Yonezawa han]] and many others, the high officials of Hirosaki's domainal government saw the [[sonno|Imperial loyalists]] as a threat to their domain. Unlike those in Yonezawa, however, the leaders of Hirosaki felt that resistance was futile, and so did not join up with the active resistance.<ref>Ravina, 202.</ref>
Unlike in many of the more oft-discussed domains, Hirosaki saw little domestic disturbance - e.g. ''[[sonno|sonnô]] [[joi|jôi]]'' factions, millenarianism, or peasant uprisings - during the [[Bakumatsu period]].
Coastal defenses for the domain were provided in large part by retainers, who were obligated from [[1864]] onwards to provide one gun for each 100 ''koku'' of their income. The domain also arranged naval fortifications, coastal artillery and the like.
As in [[Yonezawa han]] and many others, the high officials of Hirosaki's domainal government saw the [[sonno|Imperial loyalists]] as a threat to their domain. Unlike those in Yonezawa, however, the leaders of Hirosaki felt that resistance was futile, and so did not join up with the active resistance.<ref>Ravina, 202.</ref> Overall, the domain's position throughout the conflict was one of prevarication. In [[1868]]/4, the domain dispatched 540 troops to [[Shonai han|Shônai han]] in response to Imperial orders, but then only two months later, decided to join the ''[[Ouetsu reppan domei|Ôuetsu reppan dômei]]'' alliance of northern domains in support of the shogunate. Then, just two weeks later, in response to communications from the [[Konoe family]], the domain reversed its position again.<ref>Ravina, 152-153.</ref>
==Lords of Hirosaki==
==Lords of Hirosaki==
#[[Tsugaru Nobuyasu]] (d. [[1784]])
#[[Tsugaru Nobuyasu]] (d. [[1784]])
#[[Tsugaru Nobuharu]]
#[[Tsugaru Nobuharu]]
#[[Tsugaru Yasuchika]] (c. 1820)
#[[Tsugaru Yasuchika]] (r. ?-[[1825]])
#[[Tsugaru Nobuyuki]] (r. 1825-1839)
#[[Tsugaru Yukitsugu]] (?-[[1859]])
#[[Tsugaru Tsuguakira]] ([[1859]]-[[1871]])
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