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''Gusuku'' are Okinawan castles or fortresses and sacred sites. Known especially for their long, winding stone walls, the height of ''gusuku'' construction was in the 14th century, a time of conflict on [[Okinawa Island]]. Five are included alongside a handful of other Okinawan sites in a single group [[World Heritage Site]] as "Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the [[Kingdom of Ryukyu]]."<ref name=unesco>"[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/972/ Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu]." UNESCO: World Heritage Convention. Accessed 15 May 2011.</ref> Though some three hundred or so ''gusuku'' sites are known throughout the [[Ryukyu Islands]] chain,<ref>"Gusuku in the Islands" gallery label, Okinawa Prefectural Musuem.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/30407278555/in/photostream/]</ref> the vast majority are today in ruins; only [[Shuri castle]] has been reconstructed.

''Gusuku'' are Okinawan castles or fortresses and sacred sites. Known especially for their long, winding stone walls, the height of ''gusuku'' construction was in the 14th century, a time of conflict on [[Okinawa Island]]. Five are included alongside a handful of other Okinawan sites in a single group [[World Heritage Site]] as "Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the [[Kingdom of Ryukyu]]."<ref name=unesco>"[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/972/ Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu]." UNESCO: World Heritage Convention. Accessed 15 May 2011.</ref> Though some three hundred or so ''gusuku'' sites are known throughout the [[Ryukyu Islands]] chain,<ref>"Gusuku in the Islands" gallery label, Okinawa Prefectural Musuem.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/30407278555/in/photostream/]</ref> the vast majority are today in ruins; only [[Shuri castle]] has been reconstructed.

''Gusuku'' varied widely in size and scale, ranging from only 100 square meters to 20,000, with the largest ''gusuku'' presiding over complexes as large as 40,000 square meters in area. While the largest ''gusuku'' can be compared to the fullest sorts of castles, with a main keep, residential and administrative palace structures, multiple courtyards, moats, gates, and so forth, some were little more than hilltop encampments surrounded by a single stone or earthen wall.<ref>Gregory Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', University of Hawaii Press (2019), 92.</ref>

''Gusuku'' varied widely in size and scale, ranging from only 100 square meters to 20,000, with the largest ''gusuku'' presiding over complexes as large as 40,000 square meters in area. While the largest ''gusuku'' can be compared to the fullest sorts of castles, with a main keep, residential and administrative palace structures, multiple courtyards, moats, gates, and so forth, some were little more than hilltop encampments surrounded by a single stone or earthen wall. While many (but not all) served to one extent or another as the residence of a local lord or as a center of political power otherwise, all ''gusuku'' included [[utaki|sacred sites]] within their walls.<ref>Gregory Smits, ''Maritime Ryukyu'', University of Hawaii Press (2019), 92.</ref> While there has been much scholarly debate as to whether ''gusuku'', categorically, should be understood primarily as settlements/villages, fortresses, or sacred sites, the reality seems to vary from site to site, and over time.<ref>Tokumori Yukiko 徳森由希子, "Reiwa ni miru gusuku ten," ''Monthly Photo News Okinawa Graph'' オキナワグラフ, 693 (Dec 2019), 25.</ref>

 

While the etymology of the term remains unclear, [[Ifa Fuyu|Ifa Fuyû]] suggested it be understood as a reading of 御塞 (''gusuku'', ''gushiku'', ''usuku'', ''ushiku'', or in standard Japanese: ''osoku''), meaning a block or an obstacle, and thus a meaning akin to fortress.<ref name=chusei171>"Gusuku o kangaeru" 「グスクを考える」, in ''Ryûkyû no chûsei'' 琉球の中世, Tokyo: Kôshi shoin (2019), 171.</ref>

The [[Gusuku period]] of Okinawan history takes its name from these fortresses, which were at their peak at that time.

The [[Gusuku period]] of Okinawan history takes its name from these fortresses, which were at their peak at that time.

==History==

==History==

Local power-holders known as ''anji'' - who might be understood as chiefs, village heads, local lords, or by a number of other descriptors - first began to emerge in the 8th to 10th centuries. Communities became more organized and began to emerge as distinctive locales, building walls or other fortifications separating their villages from wilderness, and from one another. Though today, especially in standard Japanese or in English, the term "gusuku" is used almost exclusively to refer to a specific type of fortress, placenames preserve the fact that the term originally referred to villages, and was later used to refer to a wide variety of structures, including guardtowers and warehouses, places of worship, and tombs. Today, there are over 300 places on Okinawa which are called ''gusuku''.<ref name=journey>Kitahara Shûichi. ''A Journey to the Ryukyu Gusuku'' 琉球城紀行。 Naha: Miura Creative, 2003. p19.</ref>

Local power-holders known as ''anji'' - who might be understood as chiefs, village heads, local lords, or by a number of other descriptors - first began to emerge in the 8th to 10th centuries. Communities became more organized and began to emerge as distinctive locales, building walls or other fortifications separating their villages from wilderness, and from one another. Though today, especially in standard Japanese or in English, the term "gusuku" is used almost exclusively to refer to a specific type of fortress, placenames preserve the fact that the term originally referred to villages, and was later used to refer to a wide variety of structures, including guardtowers and warehouses, places of worship, and tombs. Today, there are over 300 places on Okinawa which are called ''gusuku'',<ref name=journey>Kitahara Shûichi. ''A Journey to the Ryukyu Gusuku'' 琉球城紀行。 Naha: Miura Creative, 2003. p19.</ref> including a number of villages or neighborhoods not directly evidencing a fortress site; a number of neighborhoods, villages, or locations otherwise in the [[Amami Islands]] and [[Sakishima]] also bear placenames containing the sounds "gusuku," "suku," and "shuku."<ref name=chusei171/>

Settlements incorporating embedded-pillar buildings, [[Okinawan tombs|tombs]], and fields, became quite numerous across the islands in the 12th-13th centuries. ''Gusuku'' construction then developed further in the 13th-14th centuries as a few powerful ''anji'' emerged, seeking to expand their power, and fueling a period of armed conflict. They built new buildings with pillars on stone foundations, and encircled the settlements in high stone walls and waterless moats, transforming them into fortresses.<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/29775636243/sizes/l]</ref> Most of the largest and most famous Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' fortresses, and those with the most impressive stone walls, date to this period.

Settlements incorporating embedded-pillar buildings, [[Okinawan tombs|tombs]], and fields, became quite numerous across the islands in the 12th-13th centuries. ''Gusuku'' construction then developed further in the 13th-14th centuries as a few powerful ''anji'' emerged, seeking to expand their power, and fueling a period of armed conflict. They built new buildings with pillars on stone foundations, and encircled the settlements in high stone walls and waterless moats, transforming them into fortresses.<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/29775636243/sizes/l]</ref> Most of the largest and most famous Ryukyuan ''gusuku'' fortresses, and those with the most impressive stone walls, date to this period. [[Gregory Smits]] identifies this period of the initial widespread construction of ''gusuku'' on [[Okinawa Island]] and [[Kumejima]] with the political and economic center of gravity in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] shifting from the [[Amami Islands]] (esp. [[Kikaijima]]) to Okinawa in the 13th-14th centuries.<ref>Smits, 18-26.; for the chief ''gusuku'' site on Kikaijima, see [[Gusuku site (Kikaijima)]].</ref>

Like castles around the world, ''gusuku'' were not merely military fortifications, but residences for the powerful, and symbols of power, prestige, and wealth. Shô Hashi established Shuri castle as his palace, and the center of political & administrative affairs for the kingdom, while other ''gusuku'', such as [[Nakijin gusuku]], the largest on the island, had already been used by the lords (kings) of Hokuzan as a sort of palace as well.

Like castles around the world, ''gusuku'' were not merely military fortifications, but residences for the powerful, and symbols of power, prestige, and wealth. Shô Hashi established Shuri castle as his palace, and the center of political & administrative affairs for the kingdom, while other ''gusuku'', such as [[Nakijin gusuku]], the largest on the island, had already been used by the lords (kings) of Hokuzan as a sort of palace as well. The spiritual or sacred aspect of ''gusuku'' should not be overlooked, however. While most Japanese castles, built originally as political and/or military centers, had [[Shinto shrines]] established within their grounds, most if not all ''gusuku'' had roughly the reverse origins, with communities or power centers growing up around sacred sites (''utaki'') and then developing over time to become more heavily fortified and greater centers of martial and political power.<ref name=chusei171/>

Many ''gusuku'' continued to be occupied and used by ''anji'' under the Ryûkyû Kingdom, who served as local administrators. Many others, presumably, fell into disuse, however, in the 17th-19th centuries, and all suffered extensive damage in the 1945 battle of Okinawa. Some have since been named World Heritage Sites, and many more have become public parks or the like.

Many ''gusuku'' continued to be occupied and used by ''anji'' under the Ryûkyû Kingdom, who served as local administrators. Many others, presumably, fell into disuse, however, in the 17th-19th centuries, and all suffered extensive damage in the 1945 battle of Okinawa. Some have since been named World Heritage Sites, and many more have become public parks or the like.