Changes

*''Japanese'': 赤金・銅 ''(akagane, dou)''

*''Japanese'': 赤金・銅 ''(akagane, dou)''

Copper has been used for [[currency|coinage]] in China and Japan since ancient times, and was a major maritime trade and [[tribute]] good throughout the pre-modern to early modern period. In the [[Edo period]], copper was perhaps Japan's chief export, as the archipelago became the chief source of copper to the entire region.<ref>[[John Whitney Hall]], “Notes on The Early Ch’ing Copper Trade With Japan,” ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'' 12, no. 3/4 (December 1, 1949), 445.</ref>

Copper has been used for [[currency|coinage]] in China and Japan since ancient times, and was a major maritime trade and [[tribute]] good throughout the pre-modern to early modern period. In the [[Edo period]], copper was perhaps Japan's chief export, as the archipelago became the chief source of copper to the entire region,<ref>[[John Whitney Hall]], “Notes on The Early Ch’ing Copper Trade With Japan,” ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'' 12, no. 3/4 (December 1, 1949), 445.</ref> and quite possibly the largest producer of copper in the world.<ref>[[Marius Jansen]], ''China in the Tokugawa World'', Harvard University Press (1992), 16.</ref>

==Early Coinage==

==Early Coinage==

The Wadô era ([[708]]-[[715]]) is named after the significant discovery of copper seams in [[Musashi province]]; the era's name means literally "Japanese copper." Copper coins minted during that period based on the form of Chinese ones are believed to have been the first coins minted in Japan.

The Wadô era ([[708]]-[[715]]) is named after the significant discovery of copper seams in [[Musashi province]]; the era's name means literally "Japanese copper." Copper coins minted during that period based on the form of [[Chinese currency|Chinese ones]] are believed to have been the first coins minted in Japan.

The [[Song Dynasty]] produced more copper coins than any other dynasty; in the 1070s, China was producing nearly six billion coins per year, a process which required 9600 tons of copper each year.<ref>Bonnie Smith, et al. ''Crossroads and Cultures'', vol. B, Bedford St. Martins (2012), 385.</ref> Many of these coins made it to Japan, where Chinese coins remained a standard mode of exchange over domestically minted coins throughout much of the pre-modern period.

The [[Song Dynasty]] produced more copper coins than any other dynasty; in the 1070s, China was producing nearly six billion coins per year, a process which required 9600 tons of copper each year.<ref>Bonnie Smith, et al. ''Crossroads and Cultures'', vol. B, Bedford St. Martins (2012), 385.</ref> Many of these coins made it to Japan, where Chinese coins remained a standard mode of exchange over domestically minted coins throughout much of the pre-modern period.

Copper coins remained a common mode of exchange in this period, alongside gold and silver. Copper was typically measured by weight in ''[[Japanese Measurements|momme]]'', with around 100 copper coins being worth roughly one ''momme'' of silver.

Copper coins remained a common mode of exchange in this period, alongside gold and silver. Copper was typically measured by weight in ''[[Japanese Measurements|momme]]'', with around 100 copper coins being worth roughly one ''momme'' of silver.

The shogunate began promoting the export of copper more forcefully in [[1695]] as a substitute for [[silver]], which was flowing out of the country at worryingly high rates. That same year, the shogunate imposed further restrictions on the export of silver, and banned the export of [[gold]] outright.<ref>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 59.</ref> This export substitution of copper for silver was greatly successful for a time. Chinese merchants found the Japanese copper to be of high quality, and available for prices competitive with the Chinese market. Meanwhile, the [[Qing Dynasty]] government was minting around 40,000 [[Japanese Measurements|piculs]] (J: ''kin'', C: ''jīn'', approx. 2,740 tons) of copper coins each year. Japanese copper was of higher quality than that produced domestically in China at the time, and would play a significant role in helping meet the Qing government's demand for over forty years, until in [[1738]], the Qing turned to relying more heavily on mines in [[Yunnan province]], which had expanded their production and/or raised the quality of their output.<ref>Hellyer, 54.</ref> Around this same time, at the end of the 17th century, the shogunate claimed exclusive authority to mint currency, putting an end to regional/[[han|domain]] production, and establishing its own shogunal gold, silver, and copper mints in [[Edo]], [[Osaka]], and [[Kyoto]]. Copper was also exported via [[Tsushima han]] to Korea, as the Korean Court required copper to mint its own coins, and via [[Satsuma han]] to the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]], along with tin, marine products, and other goods, which Ryûkyû could then use as [[Ryukyuan tribute missions to China|tribute payments to the Chinese Court]].<ref>Hellyer, 55.</ref>

The shogunate began promoting the export of copper more forcefully in [[1695]] as a substitute for [[silver]], which was flowing out of the country at worryingly high rates. That same year, the shogunate imposed further restrictions on the export of silver, and banned the export of [[gold]] outright.<ref>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 59.</ref> This export substitution of copper for silver was greatly successful for a time. Chinese merchants found the Japanese copper to be of high quality, and available for prices competitive with the Chinese market. Meanwhile, the [[Qing Dynasty]] government was minting around 40,000 [[Japanese Measurements|piculs]] (J: ''kin'', C: ''jīn'', approx. 2,740 tons) of copper coins each year. Japanese copper was of higher quality than that produced domestically in China at the time, and would play a significant role in helping meet the Qing government's demand for over forty years, until in [[1738]], the Qing turned to relying more heavily on mines in [[Yunnan province]], which had expanded their production and/or raised the quality of their output, deliberately as part of efforts to wean China off of Japanese exports.<ref>Hellyer, 54.; Schottenhammer, Angela. “Empire and Periphery? The Qing Empire’s Relations with Japan and the Ryūkyūs (1644–c. 1800), a Comparison.” ''The Medieval History Journal'' 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2013): 171.</ref> Around this same time, at the end of the 17th century, the shogunate claimed exclusive authority to mint currency, putting an end to regional/[[han|domain]] production, and establishing its own shogunal gold, silver, and copper mints in [[Edo]], [[Osaka]], and [[Kyoto]]. Copper was also exported via [[Tsushima han]] to Korea, as the Korean Court required copper to mint its own coins, and via [[Satsuma han]] to the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]], along with tin, marine products, and other goods, which Ryûkyû could then use as [[Ryukyuan tribute missions to China|tribute payments to the Chinese Court]].<ref>Hellyer, 55.</ref>

 

A series of "Shôtoku regulations" engineered by [[Arai Hakuseki]] and implemented in [[1715]] aimed at reducing the amount of copper flowing out of the country, reinforcing policies put in place in [[1685]] which restricted the Chinese to 6000 ''kan'' of silver worth of trade, and the Dutch to 3000, each year. Within this, Hakuseki restricted copper exports to three million ''kin'', and over the course of the century, both the number of Chinese ships calling at Nagasaki and the amount of precious metals they exported dropped dramatically, from 40 ships carrying away 8,000 ''kan'' worth of exports in [[1717]], to 15 ships carrying 4,000 ''kan'' in mid-century, down to ten ships and 2,7400 ''kan'' in [[1791]].<ref>Jansen, 33.</ref>

While copper mines operated in many parts of the archipelago in this period, the chief source of copper production was [[Akita han]]. Many of these mines saw considerable expansion in their production in the 17th century, but were well on the way to being exhausted by the end of that century, joined by Japan's silver mines not long afterwards. In [[1763]], just as silver exports came, essentially, to an end, the shogunate reported that the mines in Akita and elsewhere in northern Honshû had been exhausted, and decreased the amount of copper Chinese and Dutch merchants could take out of the country; the Chinese quota was reduced by 300,000 ''kin'' to 800,000, and the Dutch similarly reduced by 200,000 ''kin''. The shogunate moved to maintain the volume of trade, however, by forcing mining domains to sell export copper at reduced rates, and passing the savings on to the Dutch; Nagasaki was thus able to maintain its level of imports, and both the ''[[Nagasaki kaisho]]'' (customs house) and the mining domains made back the loss by simply charging higher prices on the domestic market.<ref>Hellyer, 78.</ref>

While copper mines operated in many parts of the archipelago in this period, the chief source of copper production was [[Akita han]]. Many of these mines saw considerable expansion in their production in the 17th century, but were well on the way to being exhausted by the end of that century, joined by Japan's silver mines not long afterwards. In [[1763]], just as silver exports came, essentially, to an end, the shogunate reported that the mines in Akita and elsewhere in northern Honshû had been exhausted, and decreased the amount of copper Chinese and Dutch merchants could take out of the country; the Chinese quota was reduced by 300,000 ''kin'' to 800,000, and the Dutch similarly reduced by 200,000 ''kin''. The shogunate moved to maintain the volume of trade, however, by forcing mining domains to sell export copper at reduced rates, and passing the savings on to the Dutch; Nagasaki was thus able to maintain its level of imports, and both the ''[[Nagasaki kaisho]]'' (customs house) and the mining domains made back the loss by simply charging higher prices on the domestic market.<ref>Hellyer, 78.</ref>