Changes

''"Prosperity to the Lew Chewans, and may they and the Americans always be friends." - Commodore Perry, at Shuri, June 6, 1853.''

''"Prosperity to the Lew Chewans, and may they and the Americans always be friends." - Commodore Perry, at Shuri, June 6, 1853.''

Perry and his fleet of four ships departed Norfolk, Virginia, on [[1852]]/10/13 (Nov 24). Before arriving in Japan proper in July of 1853, they first called at [[Naha]], the chief port of the Ryûkyû Kingdom, on May 26 (4/19), departing Ryûkyû more than a month later, on 5/26.

Perry and his fleet of four ships (the steamships ''[[USS Susquehanna|Susquehanna]]'' and ''[[USS Mississippi|Mississippi]]'', and the sailing ships ''[[USS Plymouth|Plymouth]]'' and ''[[USS Saratoga|Saratoga]]'')<ref name=edotokyo>Gallery labels, Edo-Tokyo Museum.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/50223289193/sizes/3k/]</ref> departed Norfolk, Virginia, on [[1852]]/10/13 (Nov 24). Before arriving in Japan proper in July of 1853, they first called at [[Naha]], the chief port of the Ryûkyû Kingdom, on May 26 (4/19), departing Ryûkyû more than a month later, on 5/26.

Perry was met aboard ship by the Ryukyuan royal regent, ''[[Sessei]]'' [[Ozato Chokyo|Ôzato Chôkyô]], who attempted, unsuccessfully, to convince the Commodore to give up his intentions of entering [[Shuri castle]]. [[Makishi Chochu|Makishi Chôchû]], a high-ranking official in the royal government sent to serve as interpreter, further tried to refuse Perry and his men permission even to set foot on the island, but they did so anyway, over the protests of Makishi and the other Ryukyuan authorities. Makishi would continue to serve as interpreter and in a lead role otherwise throughout Perry's visits to Ryûkyû.<ref>Kerr, George, ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing (2000), 312.</ref> [[Bernard Bettelheim]], a British missionary who had already been living on the island for several years, also imposed himself upon Perry as interpreter. A few days later, Perry's men took over a schoolhouse in [[Tomari]], claiming it as their temporary residence on the island, while Perry himself led an exploration of some of the most nearby of the [[Ryukyu Islands]].

Perry was met aboard ship by the Ryukyuan royal regent, ''[[Sessei]]'' [[Ozato Chokyo|Ôzato Chôkyô]], who attempted, unsuccessfully, to convince the Commodore to give up his intentions of entering [[Shuri castle]]. [[Makishi Chochu|Makishi Chôchû]], a high-ranking official in the royal government sent to serve as interpreter, further tried to refuse Perry and his men permission even to set foot on the island, but they did so anyway, over the protests of Makishi and the other Ryukyuan authorities. Makishi would continue to serve as interpreter and in a lead role otherwise throughout Perry's visits to Ryûkyû.<ref>Kerr, George, ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing (2000), 312.</ref> [[Bernard Bettelheim]], a British missionary who had already been living on the island for several years, also imposed himself upon Perry as interpreter. A few days later, Perry's men took over a schoolhouse in [[Tomari]], claiming it as their temporary residence on the island, while Perry himself led an exploration of some of the most nearby of the [[Ryukyu Islands]].

He landed at [[Uraga]] near [[Edo]] for the first time on 6/3, shocking Japanese fishermen and the like who were the first to witness the smoke-belching "black ships" steaming into the bay. The shogunate took steps to mobilize local police, and warned the people of the possibility of war, sending much of the townspeople of Edo into a panic. The prices of rice and other commodities skyrocketed as people stocked up. Many fled the city in a hurry, while armorers, smiths, and the like, among others, began pumping out additional product to help arm the warrior class.<ref>William Steele, "Goemon's New World View: Popular Representations of the Opening of Japan," ''Ajia bunka kenkyû'' 17 (1989), 72.</ref>

He landed at [[Uraga]] near [[Edo]] for the first time on 6/3, shocking Japanese fishermen and the like who were the first to witness the smoke-belching "black ships" steaming into the bay. The shogunate took steps to mobilize local police, and warned the people of the possibility of war, sending much of the townspeople of Edo into a panic. The prices of rice and other commodities skyrocketed as people stocked up. Many fled the city in a hurry, while armorers, smiths, and the like, among others, began pumping out additional product to help arm the warrior class.<ref>William Steele, "Goemon's New World View: Popular Representations of the Opening of Japan," ''Ajia bunka kenkyû'' 17 (1989), 72.</ref>

Following his arrival, Perry soon afterwards met with Tokugawa officials, to whom he presented his formal credentials and formal communications from Pres. Millard Fillmore, and offered a number of gifts. These gifts, displays of Western/American technological superiority, included a 1/4-size [[railroads|steam locomotive]] with 370 yards of track, and [[telegraph]] equipment with three miles of lines.<ref>Martin Dusinberre, ''Hard Times in the Hometown: A History of Community Survival in Modern Japan'', University of Hawaii Press (2012), 34.</ref> A shogunate official was given a ride on this model train, which moved along the tracks at 18 miles per hour, and "was reported to be delighted at the ride."<ref>Andrew Gordon, ''A Modern History of Japan'', Oxford University Press (2013), 50.</ref> While in mainland Japan, Perry's interpreters included Moriyama Einosuke, who had learned English from [[Ranald MacDonald]], and [[John Manjiro]]. These documents, incidentally, used the term "emperor" to refer to the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] [[shogun]]; it was only at some point after this time that it became standard to refer to the ''tennô'' as the "[[Emperor]]" in English.<ref>Ben-Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Synapse (2000), 69-71.</ref> After delivering these letters, he departed Japan on 6/9, claiming he would return "in due course" to receive the emperor's reply.

Following his arrival, Perry soon afterwards met with Tokugawa officials, to whom he presented his formal credentials and formal communications from Pres. Millard Fillmore, and offered a number of gifts. These gifts, displays of Western/American technological superiority, included a 1/4-size [[railroads|steam locomotive]] with 370 yards of track, and [[telegraph]] equipment with three miles of lines.<ref>Martin Dusinberre, ''Hard Times in the Hometown: A History of Community Survival in Modern Japan'', University of Hawaii Press (2012), 34.</ref> A shogunate official was given a ride on this model train, which moved along the tracks at 18 miles per hour, and "was reported to be delighted at the ride."<ref>Andrew Gordon, ''A Modern History of Japan'', Oxford University Press (2013), 50.</ref> While in mainland Japan, Perry's interpreters included [[Moriyama Einosuke]], who had learned English from [[Ranald MacDonald]], and [[John Manjiro]]. These documents, incidentally, used the term "emperor" to refer to the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] [[shogun]]; it was only at some point after this time that it became standard to refer to the ''tennô'' as the "[[Emperor]]" in English.<ref>Ben-Ami Shillony, "Restoration, Emperor, Diet, Prefecture, or: How Japanese Concepts were Mistranslated into Western Languages," ''Collected Writings of Ben-Ami Shillony'', Synapse (2000), 69-71.</ref> After delivering these letters, he departed Japan on 6/9, claiming he would return "in due course" to receive the emperor's reply.

Perry then returned to Okinawa, arriving at Naha on 6/20 (July 25), and requesting to bury Hugh Ellis, a crewman of the [[USS Mississippi|USS ''Mississippi'']] who had died the previous day. Ellis was buried at the [[Tomari International Cemetery]] in Naha. Perry also requested to establish a coaling station on the island for American ships and was initially refused, but the Ryukyuans capitulated once Perry threatened to seize Shuri castle by force. The station which was built had a capacity for 500 tons of coal, but was emptied of coal once Perry found success in establishing relations with the shogunate; he expressed hopes at that time, however, that the building might still be maintained for American use.<ref>Hellyer, 163-164.</ref> Perry then departed Okinawa on 6/27 (August 1), and spent the next several months in Hong Kong, before returning to Okinawa in December, spending 11/15 (Dec 15) until 12/30 (Jan 28, 1854) exploring the various Ryûkyû Islands.

Perry then returned to Okinawa, arriving at Naha on 6/20 (July 25), and requesting to bury Hugh Ellis, a crewman of the [[USS Mississippi|USS ''Mississippi'']] who had died the previous day. Ellis was buried at the [[Tomari International Cemetery]] in Naha. Perry also requested to establish a coaling station on the island for American ships and was initially refused, but the Ryukyuans capitulated once Perry threatened to seize Shuri castle by force. The station which was built had a capacity for 500 tons of coal, but was emptied of coal once Perry found success in establishing relations with the shogunate; he expressed hopes at that time, however, that the building might still be maintained for American use.<ref>Hellyer, 163-164.</ref> Perry then departed Okinawa on 6/27 (August 1), and spent the next several months in Hong Kong, before returning to Okinawa in December, spending 11/15 (Dec 15) until 12/30 (Jan 28, 1854) exploring the various Ryûkyû Islands.

==1854==

==1854==

[[File:Perry-tomari.JPG|right|thumb|320px|Monument commemorating Commodore Perry's landing at [[Tomari]] in [[1853]].]]

[[File:Perry-tomari.JPG|right|thumb|320px|Monument commemorating Commodore Perry's landing at [[Tomari]] in [[1853]].]]

Perry returned to Naha on 12/22 (Jan 20, 1854), this time with a fleet of eight ships. He stayed in Naha for only four days, during which time he forced his way into Shuri castle again, but again was refused audience with the king.

Perry returned to Naha on 12/22 (Jan 20, 1854), this time with a fleet of ten ships, including his flagship the [[USS Susquehanna|USS ''Susquehanna'']], as well as the steamships ''[[USS Powhatan|Powhatan]]'' and ''[[USS Mississippi|Mississippi]]'', and the sailing ships ''[[USS Plymouth|Plymouth]]'', ''[[USS Saratoga|Saratoga]]'', ''[[USS Macedonian|Macedonian]]'', ''[[USS Lexington|Lexington]]'', ''[[USS Vandalia|Vandalia]]'', ''[[USS Southampton|Southampton]]'', and ''[[USS Supply|Supply]]''.<ref name=edotokyo/> He stayed in Naha for only four days, during which time he forced his way into Shuri castle again, but again was refused audience with the king.

He then arrived at Edo Bay again in mainland Japan on 1/16 (Feb 13). The [[Convention of Kanagawa]] was signed on 3/3 (March 31), opening the ports of [[Hakodate]] and [[Shimoda]] to American trading ships, obligating the Japanese government to provide provisions and good treatment otherwise for American or European castaways throughout Japan, and arranging for the establishment of formal relations in the Western/modern style, with a permanent American consulate to be established shortly afterwards. Perry also asked the shogunate about opening Ryukyuan ports for trade, but was rebuffed, with the shogunate telling the commodore that Ryûkyû was "a very distant country, and the opening of its harbor cannot be discussed by us."<ref name=hellyer163>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 163.</ref>

He then arrived at Edo Bay again in mainland Japan on 1/14 (Feb 11) with a fleet of seven ships.<ref>The ''Susquehanna'', ''Powhatan'', ''Mississippi'', ''Macedonian'', ''Vandalia'', ''Southampton'', and ''Lexington''. The ''Saratoga'' and ''Supply'' arrived later, sailing from [[Shanghai]] to join the fleet at Edo Bay on 2/6 and 2/21 respectively. ''Ishin Shiryô Kôyô'' 維新史料綱要, vol 1 (1937), 532, 548, 558.</ref> The [[Convention of Kanagawa]] was signed on 3/3 (March 31), opening the ports of [[Hakodate]] and [[Shimoda]] to American trading ships, obligating the Japanese government to provide provisions and good treatment otherwise for American or European castaways throughout Japan, and arranging for the establishment of formal relations in the Western/modern style, with a permanent American consulate to be established shortly afterwards. Perry also asked the shogunate about opening Ryukyuan ports for trade, but was rebuffed, with the shogunate telling the commodore that Ryûkyû was "a very distant country, and the opening of its harbor cannot be discussed by us."<ref name=hellyer163>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 163.</ref>

In the meantime, in response to the recent arrivals of both Perry and a number of other Western ships, the shogunate ordered all bells in the country to be melted down and refashioned into cannon and rifles - with the exception of bells at head temples (''honzan''), those used for timekeeping, and those of great age and fame.  

In the meantime, in response to the recent arrivals of both Perry and a number of other Western ships, the shogunate ordered all bells in the country to be melted down and refashioned into cannon and rifles - with the exception of bells at head temples (''honzan''), those used for timekeeping, and those of great age and fame.  

Perry returned to Naha for the final time on 6/7 (July 1), to find that in the intervening time, there had been several incidents between the local residents and American crewmen he had left behind. In the worst of these incidents, a crewman named [[Board Incident|William Board]] either raped a young Okinawan woman, or assaulted an old woman (accounts differ), and was then killed by an angry mob of local residents. He was buried in the Tomari International Cemetery alongside three of his crewmates who also died at various times during that year. A number of members of Perry's crew who died in mainland Japan are buried at [[Gyokusen-ji]], in [[Shimoda]].

Perry returned to Naha for the final time on 6/7 (July 1), to find that in the intervening time, there had been several incidents between the local residents and American crewmen he had left behind. In the worst of these incidents, a crewman named [[Board Incident|William Board]] either raped a young Okinawan woman, or assaulted an old woman (accounts differ), and was then killed by an angry mob of local residents. He was buried in the Tomari International Cemetery alongside three of his crewmates who also died at various times during that year. A number of members of Perry's crew who died in mainland Japan are buried at [[Gyokusen-ji]], in [[Shimoda]].

This grievous incident aside, the [[Treaty of Amity (Ryukyu-US)|Treaty of Amity between the United States and the Ryûkyû Kingdom]] was signed on 6/17 (July 11). In the Treaty, Ryûkyû agreed to provide wood and water to American ships calling at any Ryukyuan port, to allow Americans to move freely within Ryûkyû without being harassed or followed by government officials, to allow private trade to take place freely between Americans and Ryukyuans, and to lend aid to American ships and castaways.<ref>This treaty is also known as the Compact Between the United States and the Kingdom of Lew Chew. Hellyer, 164-165.</ref> Perry departed Ryûkyû for the final time on 6/23 (July 17), taking with him the missionary Bernard Bettelheim, and a number of significant "gifts" he had insisted one taking; these included a number of blocks of Okinawan limestone which he hoped to install into the Washington Monument, then under construction,<ref>The Okinawan limestone was not added at that time, but other blocks of limestone from Okinawa were later added into the structure in the late 20th century.</ref> and a temple bell from Gokoku-ji, forged in [[1465]], which Perry then installed at Annapolis. This bell was then rung whenever Navy beat Army in football, up until 1987, when it was returned to Okinawa and replaced at Annapolis by a replica.

This grievous incident aside, the [[Treaty of Amity (Ryukyu-US)|Treaty of Amity between the United States and the Ryûkyû Kingdom]] was signed on 6/17 (July 11). In the Treaty, Ryûkyû agreed to provide wood and water to American ships calling at any Ryukyuan port, to allow Americans to move freely within Ryûkyû without being harassed or followed by government officials, to allow private trade to take place freely between Americans and Ryukyuans, and to lend aid to American ships and castaways.<ref>This treaty is also known as the Compact Between the United States and the Kingdom of Lew Chew. Hellyer, 164-165.</ref> Perry departed Ryûkyû for the final time on 6/23 (July 17), taking with him the missionary Bernard Bettelheim, and a number of significant "gifts" he had insisted one taking; these included a number of blocks of Okinawan limestone which he hoped to install into the Washington Monument, then under construction,<ref>The Okinawan limestone was not added at that time, but other blocks of limestone from Okinawa were later added into the structure in the late 20th century.</ref> and a temple bell from Gokoku-ji, forged in [[1465]], which Perry then installed at Annapolis. This bell was then rung whenever Navy won a game against Army in football, up until 1987, when it was returned to Okinawa and replaced at Annapolis by a replica.

Commodore Perry arrived in New York on 11/25 (Jan 12, [[1855]]). The Treaty of Amity between the US and Ryûkyû was ratified by Congress shortly afterward. The following year, Perry presented his ''[[Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan]]'' to Congress.

Commodore Perry arrived in New York on 11/25 (Jan 12, [[1855]]). The Treaty of Amity between the US and Ryûkyû was ratified by Congress shortly afterward, and before the end of that month, Perry returned to Japan one final time, to present the ratified treaty to the Tokugawa shogunate. The following year, Perry presented his ''[[Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan]]'' to Congress.

==Legacy==

==Legacy==