Changes

The mission would usually consist of two official envoy ships, separate crafts carrying the chief envoy and his deputy, as some uncertainty accompanied the journey<ref name=kerr181>Kerr. p181.</ref>; these would be accompanied by a number of merchant ships. During Japan's [[Edo period]], an agent from Satsuma known as a ''kansen bugyô'' (冠船奉行, O: ''kwanshin bujô'', "Investiture (Crown) Ships Magistrate") would be sent down to Ryûkyû to supervise the exchanges and interactions between Chinese and Ryukyuan officials, albeit from somewhat of a distance, given the policy of hiding Satsuma's involvement in Ryûkyû from the Chinese<ref>Matsuda, Mitsugu. ''The Government of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, 1609-1872''. Gushikawa: Yui Publishing, Co., 2001. pp46-47.</ref>. A Ryukyuan office known as the ''[[hangaho|hangaahô]]'' in Japanese (C: ''píngjiàsī''), and based near the Tenshikan, set the prices of commodities imported in this way, and oversaw the purchases of the Chinese goods.<ref>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 45.; Schottenhammer, "Empire and Periphery?", 175n98.</ref>

The mission would usually consist of two official envoy ships, separate crafts carrying the chief envoy and his deputy, as some uncertainty accompanied the journey<ref name=kerr181>Kerr. p181.</ref>; these would be accompanied by a number of merchant ships. During Japan's [[Edo period]], an agent from Satsuma known as a ''kansen bugyô'' (冠船奉行, O: ''kwanshin bujô'', "Investiture (Crown) Ships Magistrate") would be sent down to Ryûkyû to supervise the exchanges and interactions between Chinese and Ryukyuan officials, albeit from somewhat of a distance, given the policy of hiding Satsuma's involvement in Ryûkyû from the Chinese<ref>Matsuda, Mitsugu. ''The Government of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, 1609-1872''. Gushikawa: Yui Publishing, Co., 2001. pp46-47.</ref>. A Ryukyuan office known as the ''[[hangaho|hangaahô]]'' in Japanese (C: ''píngjiàsī''), and based near the Tenshikan, set the prices of commodities imported in this way, and oversaw the purchases of the Chinese goods.<ref>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 45.; Schottenhammer, "Empire and Periphery?", 175n98.</ref>

Arriving in Shuri, the envoys generally stayed for four to eight months<ref name=shimpo/> at a residence known as the Tenshikan, and were extensively entertained by the Ryukyuan royal court. A number of structures built for this purpose (and reconstructed/restored in the late 20th century), including the [[Ryutan|Ryûtan]] pond and the Hokuden (North Hall) of Shuri Castle, can still be seen today on the castle grounds. The total Chinese entourage generally numbered between 300 and 800 people, and hosting and entertaining the Chinese envoys was an extremely expensive endeavor for the Ryukyuan court<ref name=kerr181/>, costing roughly 320,000 [[tael]]s of silver, much of which often had to be borrwed from Satsuma.<ref name=schott46>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 46.</ref> The envoys were treated to seven formal banquets during their stay, including for the occasions of [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] and [[Chrysanthemum Festival]], when there were extensive performances of music and dance within Shuri castle;<ref>Liao, 100.</ref> In addition, they were visited by senior officials and ministers once every five days, who brought the emissaries considerable amounts of food<ref name=chen/>.

Arriving in Shuri, the envoys generally stayed for four to eight months<ref name=shimpo/> at a residence known as the Tenshikan, and were extensively entertained by the Ryukyuan royal court. A number of structures built for this purpose (and reconstructed/restored in the late 20th century), including the [[Ryutan|Ryûtan]] pond and the Hokuden (North Hall) of Shuri Castle, can still be seen today on the castle grounds. The total Chinese entourage generally numbered between 300 and 800 people, and hosting and entertaining the Chinese envoys was an extremely expensive endeavor for the Ryukyuan court<ref name=kerr181/>, costing roughly 320,000 [[tael]]s of silver, much of which often had to be borrwed from Satsuma.<ref name=schott46>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 46.</ref> The envoys were treated to seven formal banquets during their stay, during which there were extensive performances of music and dance within Shuri castle;<ref>Liao, 100.</ref> These seven banquets were as follows: a banquet of condolences for the passing of the previous king (諭祭の宴, J: ''yusai no en''); a banquet of investiture (冊封の宴, J: ''sappô no en''); banquets for [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] (中秋の宴, J: ''chûshû no en'') and [[Chrysanthemum Festival]] (重陽の宴, J: ''chôyô no en''); and banquets for the exchange of farewell gifts (餞別の宴, J: ''senbetsu no en''), the envoys taking their leave (拝辞の宴, J: ''haiji no en''), and upon their actual departure (望舟の宴, J: ''bôshû no en'').<ref>Chia-Ying Yeh, "The Revival and Restoration of Ryukyuan Court Music, Uzagaku: Classification and Performance Techniques, Language Usage, and Transmission," PhD thesis, University of Sheffield (2018), 63.</ref>

 

In addition, senior officials and ministers visited the envoys once every five days, bringing them considerable amounts of food and other necessities.<ref name=chen/>

A "Minister of Dance" ([[Okinawan language|O]]: ''udui bugyô'') oversaw these entertainments; ''[[kumi odori]]'', a traditional form of Ryukyuan dance-drama, was first created and performed for entertaining an investiture envoy and his fellows, in 1719<ref name=kumi>Foley, Kathy. "Kumi Odori's Historical Context and Performance Practice." in ''Ryukyu Geino: The Legacy of Kin Ryosho''. Jimpu Kai USA Kin Ryosho Ryukyu Geino Kenkyusho Hawaii Shibu, 2008. pp45-56.</ref>. In that year, the two dance-dramas ''[[Nido Tichiuchi|Gosamaru Tichiuchi]]'' and ''[[Shushin Kaniiri|Shûshin Kani'iri]]'' were debuted during the fourth banquet, following a series of eight ''[[Ryukyu odori|Ryûkyû odori]]'' dances during the third banquet, many of which are still performed today in some closely related form. Japanese music and dance was also often performed for the Chinese envoys.<ref>Miyagi Eishô, ''Ryûkyû shisha no Edo nobori'', Tokyo: Daiichi shobô (1982), 131-132.</ref>

A "Minister of Dance" ([[Okinawan language|O]]: ''udui bugyô'') oversaw these entertainments; ''[[kumi odori]]'', a traditional form of Ryukyuan dance-drama, was first created and performed for entertaining an investiture envoy and his fellows, in 1719<ref name=kumi>Foley, Kathy. "Kumi Odori's Historical Context and Performance Practice." in ''Ryukyu Geino: The Legacy of Kin Ryosho''. Jimpu Kai USA Kin Ryosho Ryukyu Geino Kenkyusho Hawaii Shibu, 2008. pp45-56.</ref>. In that year, the two dance-dramas ''[[Nido Tichiuchi|Gosamaru Tichiuchi]]'' and ''[[Shushin Kaniiri|Shûshin Kani'iri]]'' were debuted during the fourth banquet, following a series of eight ''[[Ryukyu odori|Ryûkyû odori]]'' dances during the third banquet, many of which are still performed today in some closely related form. Japanese music and dance was also often performed for the Chinese envoys.<ref>Miyagi Eishô, ''Ryûkyû shisha no Edo nobori'', Tokyo: Daiichi shobô (1982), 131-132.</ref>

During their stay in Ryûkyû, the Chinese emissaries performed two rituals: not only the investiture ritual (冊封, C: ''cè fēng'', J: ''sakuhô'', ''sappô''), but also a ritual performed at [[Sogen-ji|Sôgen-ji]] recognizing the death of the former king as an "Imperial sacrifice" (諭祭先王, C: ''yùjì xiānwáng'', J: ''yusai sen'ô'')<ref name=chen/>. During this latter ritual, the envoys formally recognized the prior king for his "civilized" acts and observance of the Confucian order, thus further reinforcing the virtuous, upright, civilized, character of the line of kings, and their recognition and approval from the Ming, source of civilization and thus of political legitimacy.<ref name=chan39>Chan, Ying Kit, 39.</ref>

During their stay in Ryûkyû, the Chinese emissaries performed two rituals: not only the investiture ritual (冊封, C: ''cè fēng'', J: ''sakuhô'', ''sappô''), but also a ritual performed at [[Sogen-ji|Sôgen-ji]] recognizing the death of the former king as an "Imperial sacrifice" (諭祭先王, C: ''yùjì xiānwáng'', J: ''yusai sen'ô'')<ref name=chen/>. The ''[[ihai]]'' memorial tablet for the late former king would be placed out, along with offerings for his spirit, before which the new king would then perform a full ''[[kowtow]]'' (three kneelings, nine bows). The Ming or Qing lead and vice-envoys would then light incense in front of the memorial tablet and make an offering of liquor. Another Ming/Qing official would then read out a formal memorial statement, and then ritually burn the document. Finally, the heads of the investiture mission would perform a partial (one kneeling, three bows) ''kowtow'' toward the memorial tablet. This was followed by a formal banquet within the grounds of Sôgen-ji.<ref>"Sappôshi kankei chôsai ni tsuite"「冊封使関係調査について」, ''Fee nu kaji'' 南ぬ風 5 (2007/10-12), 14.</ref> Through this ritual, the envoys formally recognized the prior king for his "civilized" acts and observance of the Confucian order, thus further reinforcing the virtuous, upright, civilized, character of the line of kings, and their recognition and approval from the Ming, source of civilization and thus of political legitimacy.<ref name=chan39>Chan, Ying Kit, 39.</ref>

===The Investiture Ceremony===

===The Investiture Ceremony===

[[File:Sappogishi.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The investiture ceremony, as depicted in a model on display at Shuri castle]]

[[File:Sappogishi.jpg|right|thumb|400px|The investiture ceremony, as depicted in a model on display at Shuri castle]]

The investiture ceremony itself was performed in the central courtyard (O: ''unaa'') of Shuri Castle, where a structure called ''kettei'' (闕庭) was erected to represent the Chinese Imperial Court. A temporary wooden structure ringed with yellow curtains, it had a table in the center called an "incense platform" (香案), with incense burners, candlesticks in the form of dragons, and metal flower ornaments atop it. Five smaller platforms behind it held the Imperial seal, formal letters of investiture, and gifts from the Emperor. Much of the ceremony took place either within or just in front of this structure.<ref name=plaques>Plaques on-site at Shuri castle.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/30647141921/in/dateposted-public/][https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/30735555565/sizes/l]</ref> At dawn on the day of the ceremony, the Imperial patent<ref>For a brief overview of Chinese Imperial patents, see [http://www.npm.gov.tw/exh96/treasure/02_en.html this page] at the official website of the National Palace Museum, Beijing.</ref>, Imperial edict of investiture, and Imperial gifts to the king and queen were placed in small portable pavilions. A group of Ryukyuan officials involved with the ceremony met the Chinese envoys at the [[Shuri_castle#Gates|Chûzanmon]]<ref name=chan39/> (the second outer gate of the castle), kowtowed to the patent, edict, and Imperial gifts, and then led the envoys and these Imperial objects in procession to the ''unaa'', a distance of about three miles (ten ''[[Japanese Measurements|ri]]'') from the Envoys' Residence, passing huge crowds of people who had turned out on the sides of the road to see the procession<ref name=chen/>.

The investiture ceremony itself was a lengthy and extensive process. When first reenacted in 2004, it took nearly nine hours; since then, the organizers of such events have abbreviated the ceremony considerably, omitting many repetitive sections, such as the number of times that participants kowtow.<ref>Yeh, 64.</ref> The ceremony reenacted today during Shuri Castle Festival (''Shurijô matsuri'') at the beginning of November each year is based on the [[1800]] investiture of King [[Sho On|Shô On]].<ref>Yeh, 69.</ref>

 

The ceremony was traditionally performed in the central courtyard (O: ''unaa'') of Shuri Castle, where a structure called ''kettei'' (闕庭) was erected to represent the Chinese Imperial Court. A temporary wooden structure ringed with yellow curtains, it had a table in the center called an "incense platform" (香案), with incense burners, candlesticks in the form of dragons, and metal flower ornaments atop it. Five smaller platforms behind it held the Imperial seal, formal letters of investiture, and gifts from the Emperor. Much of the ceremony took place either within or just in front of this structure.<ref name=plaques>Plaques on-site at Shuri castle.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/30647141921/in/dateposted-public/][https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/30735555565/sizes/l]</ref> At dawn on the day of the ceremony, the Imperial patent<ref>For a brief overview of Chinese Imperial patents, see [http://www.npm.gov.tw/exh96/treasure/02_en.html this page] at the official website of the National Palace Museum, Beijing.</ref>, Imperial edict of investiture, and Imperial gifts to the king and queen were placed in small portable pavilions. A group of Ryukyuan officials involved with the ceremony met the Chinese envoys at the [[Shuri_castle#Gates|Chûzanmon]]<ref name=chan39/> (the second outer gate of the castle), kowtowed to the patent, edict, and Imperial gifts, and then led the envoys and these Imperial objects in procession to the ''unaa'', a distance of about three miles (ten ''[[Japanese Measurements|ri]]'') from the Envoys' Residence, passing huge crowds of people who had turned out on the sides of the road to see the procession<ref name=chen/>.

The use of temporary structures was not limited to the Ryukyuan case, for example because of the great distance from Beijing and the necessity of erecting something not normally used in Shuri; temporary structures were regularly erected in Beijing as well, for certain Imperial ceremonies and special occasions.<ref>Murakami Masakazu 村上正和, "18 seiki Pekin no gyôretsu to shukuten" 十八世紀北京の行列と祝典, in Kurushima Hiroshi (ed.), ''Egakareta gyôretsu'' 描かれた行列, University of Tokyo Press (2015), 350-351.</ref>

The use of temporary structures was not limited to the Ryukyuan case, for example because of the great distance from Beijing and the necessity of erecting something not normally used in Shuri; temporary structures were regularly erected in Beijing as well, for certain Imperial ceremonies and special occasions.<ref>Murakami Masakazu 村上正和, "18 seiki Pekin no gyôretsu to shukuten" 十八世紀北京の行列と祝典, in Kurushima Hiroshi (ed.), ''Egakareta gyôretsu'' 描かれた行列, University of Tokyo Press (2015), 350-351.</ref>

Originally, Ryukyuan kings were given robes of a lower rank, but later would be granted robes indicative of a rank equivalent to Imperial Prince. When the Ming dynasty fell and was replaced by the Manchu Qing dynasty, the Ryukyuans were permitted to maintain Ming costume, but were furthermore permitted to wear Ming costume only for the investiture ceremony itself; outside of the ceremony, even during the continued visit of the Chinese envoys, the Ryukyuan king and his officials were expected to wear Ryukyuan court costume.<ref name=dress/> By the 19th century, this Ming style of court dress, not seen in China for over a century and a half, became a considerable focus of curiosity and attention from the Chinese envoys<ref name=chen/>.

Originally, Ryukyuan kings were given robes of a lower rank, but later would be granted robes indicative of a rank equivalent to Imperial Prince. When the Ming dynasty fell and was replaced by the Manchu Qing dynasty, the Ryukyuans were permitted to maintain Ming costume, but were furthermore permitted to wear Ming costume only for the investiture ceremony itself; outside of the ceremony, even during the continued visit of the Chinese envoys, the Ryukyuan king and his officials were expected to wear Ryukyuan court costume.<ref name=dress/> By the 19th century, this Ming style of court dress, not seen in China for over a century and a half, became a considerable focus of curiosity and attention from the Chinese envoys<ref name=chen/>.

After the formal ceremony, a reception was held in the Hokuden ("North Hall") of Shuri castle. The king exchanged cups of wine with the envoys, and shared a banquet. ''Uta-sanshin'' and ''uzagaku'' were performed as entertainments; the ''sanshin'' pieces included ''[[kagiyadefu bushi]]'', ''[[unna bushi]]'', and ten other songs, most of which remain standard in the classical repertoire today.<ref name=kaneshiro/>

After the formal ceremony, a reception was held in the Hokuden ("North Hall") of Shuri castle. The king exchanged cups of wine with the envoys, and shared a banquet. ''Uta-sanshin'' and ''uzagaku'' were performed as entertainments; the ''sanshin'' pieces included ''[[Kajadifu-bushi]]'', ''[[unna bushi]]'', and ten other songs, most of which remain standard in the classical repertoire today.<ref name=kaneshiro/>

Following the investiture, an emissary would journey to the Chinese capital, to formally express gratitude (謝恩, C: ''xiè ēn'', J: ''shaon'')<ref name=chen/>.

Following the investiture, an emissary would journey to the Chinese capital, to formally express gratitude (謝恩, C: ''xiè ēn'', J: ''shaon'')<ref name=chen/>.