Changes

By the mid-15th century, the community was surrounded by earthen walls, and contained around a hundred homes. The main thoroughfare, Kuninda Ufumichi (J: ''Kume Ôdôri''), cut across the district, running from the "Great Gate" (O: ''Ufujô'', J: ''Ômon'') which served as the entrance to the neighborhood in the southeast, to the Nishinjô ("[[Four Directions|Northern Warrior]] Gate"<!--西武門-->) in the northwest. These gates were grand structures, in a style similar to that of the Shureimon of [[Shuri castle]].<ref>Flyers available at Kuninda Terrace, Kume, Naha.</ref> According to ''[[feng shui]]'' conceptions of the town's layout, the Great Gate was the neck of a dragon, Kuninda Ufumichi its back, and the Northern Gate as its tail, with the great stones of [[Nakashima (Naha)|Nakashima]], just across the river in Izumisaki, as the dragon's pearl, or [[wish-granting jewel]]. Two stones by the Great Gate represented the dragon's eyes, and two trees its horns.<ref name=kumeplaque>Plaques on-site in Kume district, Naha.</ref> The Taoist temple [[Shiseibyo|Tensonbyô]] lay to the north of the road, while [[Kume Tenpi-gu|two Tenpigû temples]] to the sea goddess [[Matsu]] (aka Tenpi) lay to the south. A natural spring called ''Yuuna-nu-kaa'', located near the center of the village, served as one of the chief communal sources of fresh water.<ref>Plaque on-site at Yuuna-nu-kaa.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/21691303729/sizes/l]</ref>

By the mid-15th century, the community was surrounded by earthen walls, and contained around a hundred homes. The main thoroughfare, Kuninda Ufumichi (J: ''Kume Ôdôri''), cut across the district, running from the "Great Gate" (O: ''Ufujô'', J: ''Ômon'') which served as the entrance to the neighborhood in the southeast, to the Nishinjô ("[[Four Directions|Northern Warrior]] Gate"<!--西武門-->) in the northwest. These gates were grand structures, in a style similar to that of the Shureimon of [[Shuri castle]].<ref>Flyers available at Kuninda Terrace, Kume, Naha.</ref> According to ''[[feng shui]]'' conceptions of the town's layout, the Great Gate was the neck of a dragon, Kuninda Ufumichi its back, and the Northern Gate as its tail, with the great stones of [[Nakashima (Naha)|Nakashima]], just across the river in Izumisaki, as the dragon's pearl, or [[wish-granting jewel]]. Two stones by the Great Gate represented the dragon's eyes, and two trees its horns.<ref name=kumeplaque>Plaques on-site in Kume district, Naha.</ref> The Taoist temple [[Shiseibyo|Tensonbyô]] lay to the north of the road, while [[Kume Tenpi-gu|two Tenpigû temples]] to the sea goddess [[Matsu]] (aka Tenpi) lay to the south. A natural spring called ''Yuuna-nu-kaa'', located near the center of the village, served as one of the chief communal sources of fresh water.<ref>Plaque on-site at Yuuna-nu-kaa.[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/21691303729/sizes/l]</ref>

The community began to decline in the 16th century, as the kingdom's foreign trade connections declined, due to shifts in [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] maritime trade policies, and the entrance of Europeans into the trading networks. As early as [[1606]], it's said only six lineages remained (the [[Sai family|Sai (蔡)]], [[Tei family (鄭)|Tei (鄭)]], [[Tei family (程)|Tei (程)]], [[Rin family|Rin (林)]], [[Kin family|Kin (金)]], and [[Ryo family|Ryô (梁)]]).<ref>Plaques on display at [[Shuri castle]].[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/15282359859/]; Other families which were active in Kumemura in the medieval period included the Chin (陳), Kô (紅), Kô (高), Ri (李), Ô (王), Shin (沈), Den (田), Gen (阮), Yô (葉), Sô (宗), Mô (毛), Gi (魏), Ba (馬), Son (孫), Sen (銭), Han (範), Go (呉), Kô (黄), Sô (曾), Yô (楊), and Kaku (郭). Shunzo Sakamaki, "On Early Ryukyuan Names," in Sakamaki (ed.), ''Ryukyuan Names'' (Honolulu: East-West Center, 1964), 15.</ref> According to one source, around that time there were perhaps as few as thirty elderly residents, and some number of children, in the community.<ref>Akamine Mamoru, Lina Terrell (trans.), Robert Huey (ed.), ''The Ryukyu Kingdom: Cornerstone of East Asia'', University of Hawaii Press (2017), 93.</ref> The [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion of Ryûkyû]] also had a detrimental effect upon the community. The royal government worked to restore [[tribute|tributary]] and investiture relations with China, however, and also transferred the family registers of a number of Naha and [[Shuri]] elite families to Kumemura, and so the community began to revive. These families, along with those descended from Chinese immigrants more recent than the original 36 families, were known as ''shinnyû tôei jin'', or "newly entered people of the Chinese community [i.e. Kume]." By the late 19th century, just before the [[Ryukyu shobun|fall of the kingdom]], as many as ten out of twenty-five Kume families (or 40%) were of one of these newer lineages; only fifteen families (or 60% of the Kume aristocracy) traced their lineage back to the 36 families.<ref>Ikemiya Masaharu, ''Kumemura: rekishi to jinbutsu'', Naha: Hirugi-sha (1993), 16.</ref>

The community began to decline in the 16th century, as the kingdom's foreign trade connections declined, due to shifts in [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] maritime trade policies, and the entrance of Europeans into the trading networks. As early as [[1606]], it's said only six lineages remained (the [[Sai family|Sai (蔡)]], [[Tei family (鄭)|Tei (鄭)]], [[Tei family (程)|Tei (程)]], [[Rin family|Rin (林)]], [[Kin family|Kin (金)]], and [[Ryo family|Ryô (梁)]]).<ref>Plaques on display at [[Shuri castle]].[https://www.flickr.com/photos/toranosuke/15282359859/]; Other families which were active in Kumemura in the medieval period included the Chin (陳), Kô (紅), Kô (高), Ri (李), Ô (王), Shin (沈), Den (田), Gen (阮), Yô (葉), Sô (宗), Mô (毛), Gi (魏), Ba (馬), Son (孫), Sen (銭), Han (範), Go (呉), Kô (黄), Sô (曾), Yô (楊), and Kaku (郭). Shunzo Sakamaki, "On Early Ryukyuan Names," in Sakamaki (ed.), ''Ryukyuan Names'' (Honolulu: East-West Center, 1964), 15.</ref> According to one source, around that time there were perhaps as few as thirty elderly residents, and some number of children, in the community.<ref name=akamine93>Akamine Mamoru, Lina Terrell (trans.), Robert Huey (ed.), ''The Ryukyu Kingdom: Cornerstone of East Asia'', University of Hawaii Press (2017), 93.</ref> The [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion of Ryûkyû]] also had a detrimental effect upon the community. The royal government worked to restore [[tribute|tributary]] and investiture relations with China, however, and also transferred the family registers of a number of Naha and [[Shuri]] elite families to Kumemura, and so the community began to revive. These families, along with those descended from Chinese immigrants more recent than the original 36 families, were known as ''shinnyû tôei jin'', or "newly entered people of the Chinese community [i.e. Kume]." By the late 19th century, just before the [[Ryukyu shobun|fall of the kingdom]], as many as ten out of twenty-five Kume families (or 40%) were of one of these newer lineages; only fifteen families (or 60% of the Kume aristocracy) traced their lineage back to the 36 families.<ref>Ikemiya Masaharu, ''Kumemura: rekishi to jinbutsu'', Naha: Hirugi-sha (1993), 16.</ref>

The community responded to the fall of the Ming Dynasty by initially rejecting the [[Manchu]] [[Qing Dynasty]] and turning away from Chinese culture towards more native Ryukyuan practices. However, before long they recognized their potential role in leading an effort to strengthen the kingdom's Confucian and (Ming) Chinese cultural practices and cultural character, and were encouraged by the royal court to do so. With the support of the royal court, the community thus revived, and led the 17th-18th century sinification of the kingdom, introducing considerable Confucian or Ming cultural influences into many aspects of government structure, practices, and rituals. As early as the 1670s, top Kumemura official [[Kin Seishun]] established a [[shiseibyo|Confucian temple]] in the village, and had teachers of Confucian reading and recitation teaching the [[Confucian classics]]. In the 1680s, students began to be sent to [[Beijing]] again, after a hiatus in that practice of several decades following the violence and tumult surrounding the fall of the Ming.<ref>Akamine Mamoru, Lina Terrell (trans.), Robert Huey (ed.), ''The Ryukyu Kingdom: Cornerstone of East Asia'', University of Hawaii Press (2017), 93.</ref>

The community responded to the fall of the Ming Dynasty by initially rejecting the [[Manchu]] [[Qing Dynasty]] and turning away from Chinese culture towards more native Ryukyuan practices. However, before long they recognized their potential role in leading an effort to strengthen the kingdom's Confucian and (Ming) Chinese cultural practices and cultural character, and were encouraged by the royal court to do so. With the support of the royal court, the community thus revived, and led the 17th-18th century sinification of the kingdom, introducing considerable Confucian or Ming cultural influences into many aspects of government structure, practices, and rituals. As early as the 1670s, top Kumemura official [[Kin Seishun]] established a [[shiseibyo|Confucian temple]] in the village, and had teachers of Confucian reading and recitation teaching the [[Confucian classics]]. In the 1680s, students began to be sent to [[Beijing]] again, after a hiatus in that practice of several decades following the violence and tumult surrounding the fall of the Ming.<ref name=akamine93/> A Confucian academy known as the [[Meirindo|Meirindô]] was established in Kumemura in [[1718]].

Though Kumemura would retain its distinct identity and societal/political/cultural role up until the fall of the kingdom in the 1870s, by the 17th century the walls around the district had gone, and the community was somewhat more integrated with the other districts of the city. As experts in scholarship, languages, and diplomacy, members of the Kumemura community served as translators and official government representatives not only in interactions with China, but when the time came with Westerners as well.

Though Kumemura would retain its distinct identity and societal/political/cultural role up until the fall of the kingdom in the 1870s, by the 17th century the walls around the district had gone, and the community was somewhat more integrated with the other districts of the city. As experts in scholarship, languages, and diplomacy, members of the Kumemura community served as translators and official government representatives not only in interactions with China, but when the time came with Westerners as well.

==Administration==

==Administration==

The administration of the Kume community, and in particular of the reception of Chinese investiture missions, and preparations for tribute missions to China, was headed by an official called the ''Kumemura sôyaku'' (久米村総役), ''Kume sôriyaku'' (久米総理役), or ''sôri Tôeishi'' (総理唐栄司). He was of ''shikin dayû'' (紫金太夫) rank, the highest [[Ryukyuan court ranks|rank]] someone from Kumemura could achieve.<ref>Miyagi Eishô 宮城栄昌, ''Ryûkyû shisha no Edo nobori'' 琉球使者の江戸上り, Tokyo: Daiichi Shobô (1982), 46.</ref> This official also oversaw children's education within the community until [[1678]], when those responsibilities were taken over by a new post, called ''kôkaishi'' (講解師) or ''kunkoshi'' (訓詰師). Individuals to the latter post were appointed following an exam. The [[Kume Tenpi-gu|Kume Tenpi-gû]] was the center of elite education in the kingdom until [[1718]], when the Meirindô was established at the [[Shiseibyo|Confucian temple]].

The administration of the Kume community, and in particular of the reception of Chinese investiture missions, and preparations for tribute missions to China, was headed by an official called the ''Kumemura sôyaku'' (久米村総役), ''Kume sôriyaku'' (久米総理役), or ''sôri Tôeishi'' (総理唐栄司). He was of ''shikin dayû'' (紫金太夫) rank, the highest [[Ryukyuan court ranks|rank]] someone from Kumemura could achieve.<ref>Miyagi Eishô 宮城栄昌, ''Ryûkyû shisha no Edo nobori'' 琉球使者の江戸上り, Tokyo: Daiichi Shobô (1982), 46.</ref> This official also oversaw children's education within the community until [[1678]], when those responsibilities were taken over by a new post, called ''kôkaishi'' (講解師) or ''kunkoshi'' (訓詰師). Individuals to the latter post were appointed following an exam. The [[Kume Tenpi-gu|Kume Tenpi-gû]] was the center of elite education in the kingdom until 1718, when the Meirindô was established at the Confucian temple.

The ''Kume sôriyaku'' was assisted by an official called the ''chagushi'' (長史), selected to serve for a period of two to three years. From [[1403]] to [[1646]], this title was held by the lead tribute ambassador, but after 1646, the title came to refer to this position within the town administration. The ''chagushi'' served a key role in the management of financial, legal, diplomatic, and commercial matters.<ref>''Shinshun no en'' (New Year's Banquet) pamphlet, Shuri Castle Park, 2017.</ref>

The ''Kume sôriyaku'' was assisted by an official called the ''chagushi'' (長史), selected to serve for a period of two to three years. From [[1403]] to [[1646]], this title was held by the lead tribute ambassador, but after 1646, the title came to refer to this position within the town administration. The ''chagushi'' served a key role in the management of financial, legal, diplomatic, and commercial matters.<ref>''Shinshun no en'' (New Year's Banquet) pamphlet, Shuri Castle Park, 2017.</ref>