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''Nihonga'' (lit. "Japan pictures" or "Japanese painting") is a term applied broadly to Japanese paintings of the [[Meiji period]] and onwards which employ traditional media and techniques. Also called "neo-traditional" painting, the term ''Nihonga'', along with the movement or genre itself, emerged around the 1880s as a reaction against the prominence of ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting) and the decline of traditional modes of painting. The style has been described as "modernist," and combines elements of the style and techniques of [[Rinpa]], [[Kano school|Kanô school]], [[Tosa school]], ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', [[literati painting]], and other traditional painting schools with elements of Western technique and style including perspective, shading and modeling, attention to light sources and shadow, the absence of outline, and a degree of realism or naturalism, in compositions which most often feature traditional subjects or themes. Works are done not in oils, acrylics, pencil, charcoal, or other Western media, but in ink and colors on paper or silk, on hanging scrolls, handscrolls, folding screens, or other traditional formats. Gold and silver foil, mica, and other such materials employed by Rinpa, Kanô, and ''ukiyo-e'' artists are also sometimes used.

''Nihonga'' (lit. "Japan pictures" or "Japanese painting") is a term applied broadly to Japanese paintings of the [[Meiji period]] and onwards which employ traditional media and techniques. Also called "neo-traditional" painting, the term ''Nihonga'', along with the movement or genre itself, emerged around the 1880s as a reaction against the prominence of ''[[yoga|yôga]]'' (Western-style oil painting) and the decline of traditional modes of painting. The style has been described as "modernist," and combines elements of the style and techniques of [[Rinpa]], [[Kano school|Kanô school]], [[Tosa school]], ''[[ukiyo-e]]'', [[literati painting]], and other traditional painting schools with elements of Western technique and style including perspective, shading and modeling, attention to light sources and shadow, the absence of outline, and a degree of realism or naturalism, in compositions which most often feature traditional subjects or themes. Works are done not in oils, acrylics, pencil, charcoal, or other Western media, but in ink and colors on paper or silk, on hanging scrolls, handscrolls, folding screens, or other traditional formats. Gold and silver foil, mica, and other such materials employed by Rinpa, Kanô, and ''ukiyo-e'' artists are also sometimes used.

In all of this, ''Nihonga'' bears similarities with ''[[shin hanga]]'', which might truly be described as the prints equivalent to what ''Nihonga'' is in the realm of painting. ''Shin hanga'' employed elements of ''ukiyo-e'' style and process, combining these with shadows, perspective, a degree of realism, and other elements of Western art, to depict scenes of traditional Japan, especially for Western audiences.

In all of this, ''Nihonga'' bears similarities with ''[[shin hanga]]'', which might truly be described as the prints equivalent to what ''Nihonga'' is in the realm of painting. ''Shin hanga'' employed elements of ''ukiyo-e'' style and process, combining these with shadows, perspective, a degree of realism, and other elements of Western art, to depict scenes of traditional Japan, especially for Western audiences. Where Edo period painters simply produced "Japanese" art by default, likely giving little thought to whether their work was "Japanese," or in what ways or for what purposes it was "Japanese," from the Meiji period onwards, ''Nihonga'' painters, and indeed perhaps all Japanese artists, have had no choice but to be conscious of these questions. As art historian [[Chelsea Foxwell]] has written, Japanese painting became "bifurcated between an authentic premodern corpus (Japanese painting) and ... Japanese-''style'' painting, or consciously Japanese painting."<ref name=foxwell2>Chelsea Foxwell, ''Making Modern Japanese-Style Painting'', U Chicago Press (2015), 2.</ref>

Galleries in Japan, artists' groups, and painters themselves continue to apply the term ''Nihonga'' to works produced today, and indeed ''Nihonga'' painters today continue to be commissioned to create works for traditional contexts. For example, the temples of [[Kennin-ji]] and [[Kencho-ji|Kenchô-ji]] employed painter Koizumi Junsaku to create dragon paintings for their ceilings in 2000-2002.<ref>Takahashi Tomoko. "[http://www.i-sys.info/serial/interview/14/interview14.html Interview]. Webmagazine i-sys (アイシス). 14 January 2005. (Translation by [[User:LordAmeth]] available [http://chaari.wordpress.com/2009/03/09/koizumi-junsaku-interview/ here].)</ref> The period from roughly the 1880s to 1930s, however, can be discussed as the real core period of the development of ''Nihonga'', with the question of what constitutes ''Nihonga'' in the post-war period becoming much more contested and debatable, as many artists begin to experiment and to deviate further from either traditional themes and subjects or traditional media and techniques.

Galleries in Japan, artists' groups, and painters themselves continue to apply the term ''Nihonga'' to works produced today, and indeed ''Nihonga'' painters today continue to be commissioned to create works for traditional contexts. For example, the temples of [[Kennin-ji]] and [[Kencho-ji|Kenchô-ji]] employed painter Koizumi Junsaku to create dragon paintings for their ceilings in 2000-2002.<ref>Takahashi Tomoko. "[http://www.i-sys.info/serial/interview/14/interview14.html Interview]. Webmagazine i-sys (アイシス). 14 January 2005. (Translation by [[User:LordAmeth]] available [http://chaari.wordpress.com/2009/03/09/koizumi-junsaku-interview/ here].)</ref> The period from roughly the 1880s to 1930s, however, can be discussed as the real core period of the development of ''Nihonga'', with the question of what constitutes ''Nihonga'' in the post-war period becoming much more contested and debatable, as many artists begin to experiment and to deviate further from either traditional themes and subjects or traditional media and techniques.

==Background==

==Background==

''Nihonga'' emerged out of a reaction against movements to fully embrace Western painting styles and techniques as part of the surge towards modernity, discarding traditional Japanese painting as non-modern, as backwards and as being "of the past." It was developed also, in part, out of a desire to establish a "national" form of painting.

''Nihonga'' emerged out of a reaction against movements to fully embrace Western painting styles and techniques as part of the surge towards modernity, discarding traditional Japanese painting as non-modern, as backwards and as being "of the past." It was developed also, in part, out of a desire to establish a "national" form of painting, as well as from a need, simply, to have a term to identify or categorize traditional (or traditional-style, neo-traditional, or traditional-inspired) Japanese painting. Prior to the emergence of the term ''Nihonga'' in the 1880s, there had been no single umbrella term to refer to all the various schools and styles of Japanese painting, altogether as a single category; arguably, perhaps, there had been no need for such a term. But, "it was not just - or not even - that paintings themselves were changing [at this time]. Even when paintings stayed the same, there were notable changes in artists, viewers, viewing environments, and the words surrounding painting."<ref name=foxwell2/> Thus, while ''Nihonga'' was certainly an art movement unto itself, it was also a broader category which was created out of social-cultural necessity of its time. The term also emerged, in part, simply as a means of translating Westerners' references to "Japanese painting," which they, from their foreign perspective, saw as a single overarching category.<ref>Foxwell, 5.</ref>

It is important to note, however, that a great many artists produced works in both the ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' modes, studying in one first before switching to the other, or dabbling simultaneously in both. This was a time when the art world was highly politicized, with rivalries between Tokyo and Kyoto, and between various factions within both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga''; art historian [[Ellen Conant]] has argued that the efforts of Fenollosa and Okakura polarized unnecessarily,<ref>Conant. p14.</ref> an influence that lasted at least until [[1907]], when Okakura served as a judge at the first [[Bunten|Ministry of Education Juried Exhibition]]. Yet, at the same time, many artists still had their feet in both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' circles, or practiced one before switching to the other.

It is important to note, however, that a great many artists produced works in both the ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' modes, studying in one first before switching to the other, or dabbling simultaneously in both. This was a time when the art world was highly politicized, with rivalries between Tokyo and Kyoto, and between various factions within both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga''; art historian [[Ellen Conant]] has argued that the efforts of Fenollosa and Okakura polarized unnecessarily,<ref>Conant. p14.</ref> an influence that lasted at least until [[1907]], when Okakura served as a judge at the first [[Bunten|Ministry of Education Juried Exhibition]]. Yet, at the same time, many artists still had their feet in both ''Nihonga'' and ''yôga'' circles, or practiced one before switching to the other.

==History==

==History==

===Origins===

===Origins===

Though growing out of a fusion or synthesis of a number of painting traditions each of which were centuries old, the seeds for the ''Nihonga'' movement can be said to have been sown by the emergence of that which it railed against.  

Though growing out of a fusion or synthesis of a number of painting traditions each of which were centuries old, the seeds for the ''Nihonga'' movement can be said to have been sown by the emergence of that which it railed against.

A group called the [[Ryuchikai|Ryûchikai]], or "Dragon Pond Society," had been formed in [[1878]] by [[Kuki Ryuichi|Kuki Ryûichi]] and a number of other officials involved in Japan's participation in [[international expositions]] to promote the production of the type of works highly valued by Westerners - that is, [[yoga|oil paintings]], in certain styles, and of certain subjects - so as to enhance Japan's prestige and acceptance as a "modern" nation-state and equal member of the international community. This was compounded by government interest in Western artistic techniques as a means of capturing the world realistically, something with profound practical utility in a variety of fields, including engineering and documentary purposes.

A group called the [[Ryuchikai|Ryûchikai]], or "Dragon Pond Society," had been formed in [[1878]] by [[Kuki Ryuichi|Kuki Ryûichi]] and a number of other officials involved in Japan's participation in [[international expositions]] to promote the production of the type of works highly valued by Westerners - that is, [[yoga|oil paintings]], in certain styles, and of certain subjects - so as to enhance Japan's prestige and acceptance as a "modern" nation-state and equal member of the international community. This was compounded by government interest in Western artistic techniques as a means of capturing the world realistically, something with profound practical utility in a variety of fields, including engineering and documentary purposes.

By 1888, however, the painter Matsuoka Hisashi, returning to Japan after studying for eight years in Rome, remarked that where the Japan he had left was one fanatical about Western civilization, the one he returned to was characterized by arguments to preserve a national essence - arguments that formed a strong opposition against total Westernization, and which were perhaps so strong that ''yôga'' painters might even, at times, be accused of being traitors to the nation.<ref>John Clark, ''Modernities of Japanese Art'', Brill (2013), 83.</ref>

By 1888, however, the painter Matsuoka Hisashi, returning to Japan after studying for eight years in Rome, remarked that where the Japan he had left was one fanatical about Western civilization, the one he returned to was characterized by arguments to preserve a national essence - arguments that formed a strong opposition against total Westernization, and which were perhaps so strong that ''yôga'' painters might even, at times, be accused of being traitors to the nation.<ref>John Clark, ''Modernities of Japanese Art'', Brill (2013), 83.</ref> The first government-sponsored painting exhibition, held in [[1882]] and run by the [[Ministry of the Interior]], was devoted to "all styles of painting, except for Western pictures." This exhibition, known as the ''Naikoku kaiga kyôshinkai'' ("Domestic Competitive Painting Exhibition"), was held again in [[1884]].<ref>Foxwell, 6.</ref> This came after shows such as the [[1877]] First [[Domestic Industrial Exposition]], in which works in oils and in traditional media were hung side-by-side, as part of an exhibition that included much else besides painting.

Credit for encouraging this shift is usually given chiefly to [[Ernest Fenollosa]], who had come to Japan in 1878, along with his former student [[Okakura Kakuzo|Okakura Kakuzô]], though surely such a change involved a complex set of actors and influences beyond the actions of Fenollosa and Okakura alone.

Credit for encouraging this shift is usually given chiefly to [[Ernest Fenollosa]], who had come to Japan in 1878, along with his former student [[Okakura Kakuzo|Okakura Kakuzô]], though surely such a change involved a complex set of actors and influences beyond the actions of Fenollosa and Okakura alone. Indeed, some scholars have pointed out that the narrative of a Japanese art world pendulum eagerly embracing Western-style painting, and then swinging back to greater appreciation or concern for maintaining native traditions, is too simplistic. In reality, throughout the early Meiji period (as in earlier and later periods as well), there was a diversity of opinion, with both traditionalists and modernists of various stripes (as well as people who might be said to fall in between) being quite active throughout, and merely ebbing and waning in prominence or influence.<ref>Foxwell, 3-4.</ref>

The two founded the ''[[Kangakai]]'' ("Painting Appreciation Society") in [[1884]] after presenting a highly critical speech to the Ryûchikai two years earlier. The pair, along with a number of artists and others who constituted this Society, worked to combat the shift to Western modes of art, and to promote an appreciation of the beauty of the traditional arts, and the value of Japan maintaining or creating its own distinctive national tradition of painting, rather than simply emulating that of the West.<ref>Though credited with an extremely influential role in the promotion of the appreciation of Japanese artistic traditions at this time, Fenollosa and Okakura were not the only ones, nor the first ones, to advocate such positions. Italian engraver [[Edoardo Chiossone]] had suggested to the [[Meiji government]] a few years prior to Fenollosa's arrival in Japan that the government ought to perform surveys of historical sites, ancient monuments, and artistic treasures.</ref>

Still, Fenollosa and Okakura were among those who were quite influential. The two founded the ''[[Kangakai]]'' ("Painting Appreciation Society") in [[1884]] after presenting a highly critical speech to the Ryûchikai two years earlier. The pair, along with a number of artists and others who constituted this Society, worked to combat the shift to Western modes of art, and to promote an appreciation of the beauty of the traditional arts, and the value of Japan maintaining or creating its own distinctive national tradition of painting, rather than simply emulating that of the West.<ref>Though credited with an extremely influential role in the promotion of the appreciation of Japanese artistic traditions at this time, Fenollosa and Okakura were not the only ones, nor the first ones, to advocate such positions. Italian engraver [[Edoardo Chiossone]] had suggested to the [[Meiji government]] a few years prior to Fenollosa's arrival in Japan that the government ought to perform surveys of historical sites, ancient monuments, and artistic treasures.</ref>

Fenollosa did not regard ''ukiyo-e'' or certain other styles particularly highly, but was strongly interested in [[Buddhist art]] and in Kanô school painting, and worked with [[Kano Hogai|Kanô Hôgai]] to create a new national form of Japanese painting, which would incorporate Western techniques such as shading and modeling of forms, light and shadow, and linear perspective, and would focus on inherently Japanese themes which might appeal throughout the country. He focused especially on Buddhist imagery, believing this to be something which was innately Japanese and meaningful throughout Japan. Hôgai's "Kannon as Merciful Mother" (1883) and "Fudô Myôô" (1887) are two examples of this style envisioned and championed by Fenollosa.

Fenollosa did not regard ''ukiyo-e'' or certain other styles particularly highly, but was strongly interested in [[Buddhist art]] and in Kanô school painting, and worked with [[Kano Hogai|Kanô Hôgai]] to create a new national form of Japanese painting, which would incorporate Western techniques such as shading and modeling of forms, light and shadow, and linear perspective, and would focus on inherently Japanese themes which might appeal throughout the country. He focused especially on Buddhist imagery, believing this to be something which was innately Japanese and meaningful throughout Japan. Hôgai's "Kannon as Merciful Mother" (1883) and "Fudô Myôô" (1887) are two examples of this style envisioned and championed by Fenollosa.