Changes

==Muromachi Period==

==Muromachi Period==

Though copper coins were for a time a major trade and tribute good, or form of payment, exchanged between China, Japan, Korea, [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû]], and beyond, and indeed were one of Japan's major imports from China in the ''[[kango boeki|kangô bôeki]]'' "tally trade," the [[Ashikaga shogunate]] banned the outflow of copper coins from Japan in [[1471]], especially to Ryûkyû via [[Satsuma province|Satsuma]].<ref>Tanaka Takeo, "Japan's Relations with Overseas Countries," in [[John Whitney Hall]] and Toyoda Takeshi (eds.) ''Japan in the Muromachi Age'', Cornell University East Asia Program (2001), 159-178.</ref>

Though copper coins were for a time a major trade and tribute good, or form of payment, exchanged between China, Japan, Korea, [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû]], and beyond, and indeed were one of Japan's major imports from China in the ''[[kango boeki|kangô bôeki]]'' "tally trade," the [[Ashikaga shogunate]] banned the outflow of copper coins from Japan in [[1471]], especially to Ryûkyû via [[Satsuma province|Satsuma]].<ref>Tanaka Takeo, "Japan's Relations with Overseas Countries," in John Whitney Hall and Toyoda Takeshi (eds.) ''Japan in the Muromachi Age'', Cornell University East Asia Program (2001), 159-178.</ref>

Though not comparable to production during the Song Dynasty, the [[Ming Dynasty]], especially under the [[Yongle Emperor]] (r. [[1402]]-[[1424]]), saw considerable minting of copper coins. Coins from the Yongle era circulated so widely in Japan that even today the character 「永」 (J: ''ei'', C: ''Yǒng'' as in Yongle) is sometimes used to refer to copper coins (e.g.  「永二〇〇文」 , meaning 200 ''mon'' of copper coins).

Though not comparable to production during the Song Dynasty, the [[Ming Dynasty]], especially under the [[Yongle Emperor]] (r. [[1402]]-[[1424]]), saw considerable minting of copper coins. Coins from the Yongle era circulated so widely in Japan that even today the character 「永」 (J: ''ei'', C: ''Yǒng'' as in Yongle) is sometimes used to refer to copper coins (e.g.  「永二〇〇文」 , meaning 200 ''mon'' of copper coins).

The shogunate began promoting the export of copper more forcefully in [[1695]] as a substitute for [[silver]], which was flowing out of the country at worryingly high rates. That same year, the shogunate imposed further restrictions on the export of silver, and banned the export of [[gold]] outright.<ref>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 59.</ref> This export substitution of copper for silver was greatly successful for a time. Chinese merchants found the Japanese copper to be of high quality, and available for prices competitive with the Chinese market. Meanwhile, the [[Qing Dynasty]] government was minting around 40,000 [[Japanese Measurements|piculs]] (J: ''kin'', C: ''jīn'', approx. 2,740 tons) of copper coins each year. Japanese copper was of higher quality than that produced domestically in China at the time, and would play a significant role in helping meet the Qing government's demand for over forty years, until in [[1738]], the Qing turned to relying more heavily on mines in [[Yunnan province]], which had expanded their production and/or raised the quality of their output.<ref>Hellyer, 54.</ref> Around this same time, at the end of the 17th century, the shogunate claimed exclusive authority to mint currency, putting an end to regional/[[han|domain]] production, and establishing its own shogunal gold, silver, and copper mints in [[Edo]], [[Osaka]], and [[Kyoto]]. Copper was also exported via [[Tsushima han]] to Korea, as the Korean Court required copper to mint its own coins, and via [[Satsuma han]] to the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]], along with tin, marine products, and other goods, which Ryûkyû could then use as [[Ryukyuan tribute missions to China|tribute payments to the Chinese Court]].<ref>Hellyer, 55.</ref>

The shogunate began promoting the export of copper more forcefully in [[1695]] as a substitute for [[silver]], which was flowing out of the country at worryingly high rates. That same year, the shogunate imposed further restrictions on the export of silver, and banned the export of [[gold]] outright.<ref>Robert Hellyer, ''Defining Engagement'', Harvard University Press (2009), 59.</ref> This export substitution of copper for silver was greatly successful for a time. Chinese merchants found the Japanese copper to be of high quality, and available for prices competitive with the Chinese market. Meanwhile, the [[Qing Dynasty]] government was minting around 40,000 [[Japanese Measurements|piculs]] (J: ''kin'', C: ''jīn'', approx. 2,740 tons) of copper coins each year. Japanese copper was of higher quality than that produced domestically in China at the time, and would play a significant role in helping meet the Qing government's demand for over forty years, until in [[1738]], the Qing turned to relying more heavily on mines in [[Yunnan province]], which had expanded their production and/or raised the quality of their output.<ref>Hellyer, 54.</ref> Around this same time, at the end of the 17th century, the shogunate claimed exclusive authority to mint currency, putting an end to regional/[[han|domain]] production, and establishing its own shogunal gold, silver, and copper mints in [[Edo]], [[Osaka]], and [[Kyoto]]. Copper was also exported via [[Tsushima han]] to Korea, as the Korean Court required copper to mint its own coins, and via [[Satsuma han]] to the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]], along with tin, marine products, and other goods, which Ryûkyû could then use as [[Ryukyuan tribute missions to China|tribute payments to the Chinese Court]].<ref>Hellyer, 55.</ref>

While copper mines operated in many parts of the archipelago in this period, the chief source of copper production was [[Akita han]]. Many of these mines saw considerable expansion in their production in the 17th century, but were well on the way to being exhausted by the end of that century, joined by Japan's silver mines not long afterwards.

While copper mines operated in many parts of the archipelago in this period, the chief source of copper production was [[Akita han]]. Many of these mines saw considerable expansion in their production in the 17th century, but were well on the way to being exhausted by the end of that century, joined by Japan's silver mines not long afterwards. In [[1763]], just as silver exports came, essentially, to an end, the shogunate reported that the mines in Akita and elsewhere in northern Honshû had been exhausted, and decreased the amount of copper Chinese and Dutch merchants could take out of the country; the Chinese quota was reduced by 300,000 ''kin'' to 800,000, and the Dutch similarly reduced by 200,000 ''kin''. The shogunate moved to maintain the volume of trade, however, by forcing mining domains to sell export copper at reduced rates, and passing the savings on to the Dutch; Nagasaki was thus able to maintain its level of imports, and both the ''[[Nagasaki kaisho]]'' (customs house) and the mining domains made back the loss by simply charging higher prices on the domestic market.<ref>Hellyer, 78.</ref>

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