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The Ming Dynasty capital of Beijing fell to Manchu invaders in [[1644]], marking the beginning of Qing Dynasty control of China; Ming loyalists continued to hold out in southern China and Taiwan, however, for several decades. For a time, King [[Sho Ken|Shô Ken]] maintained the kingdom's allegiance to, and relations with, the Ming, in part because of pragmatic economic concerns, namely Ming willingness to resume the raw silk trade. Chinese envoy [[Xie Bizhen]]<!--謝必振--> traveled alongside Ryukyuan representatives within China, and to & from Ryûkyû, numerous times, attempting to convince the kingdom to sever its ties with the Ming loyalists, and enter into relations with the Qing Dynasty.
The Ming Dynasty capital of Beijing fell to Manchu invaders in [[1644]], marking the beginning of Qing Dynasty control of China; Ming loyalists continued to hold out in southern China and Taiwan, however, for several decades. For a time, King [[Sho Ken|Shô Ken]] maintained the kingdom's allegiance to, and relations with, the Ming, in part because of pragmatic economic concerns, namely Ming willingness to resume the raw silk trade. Chinese envoy [[Xie Bizhen]]<!--謝必振--> traveled alongside Ryukyuan representatives within China, and to & from Ryûkyû, numerous times, attempting to convince the kingdom to sever its ties with the Ming loyalists, and enter into relations with the Qing Dynasty.
Shô Ken was succeeded by his younger brother, [[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu]] following the former's death in [[1647]], and King Shô Shitsu was eventually convinced to send a delegation to Beijing. The Ryukyuan envoys, Ba Sôki<!--馬宗毅--> and Sai Soryû<!--蔡祚隆-->, were sent to congratulate the [[Shunzhi Emperor]] on his recent enthronement, to had over the king's Ming stamp and Imperial Rescript, and to request a new stamp and rescript from the Qing. It is said, however, that Shô Shitsu did not request investiture from the Qing, nor desire that a Qing embassy should come to Ryûkyû.
Shô Ken was succeeded by his younger brother, [[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu]] following the former's death in [[1647]], and King Shô Shitsu was eventually convinced to send a delegation to Beijing. The Ryukyuan envoys, [[Ma Zongyi]]<!--馬宗毅--> and [[Cai Zuolong]]<!--蔡祚隆-->, were sent to congratulate the [[Shunzhi Emperor]] on his recent enthronement, to had over the king's Ming stamp and Imperial Rescript, and to request a new stamp and rescript from the Qing. It is said, however, that Shô Shitsu did not request investiture from the Qing, nor desire that a Qing embassy should come to Ryûkyû.
A Qing embassy was commissioned in to journey to Ryûkyû anyway, in [[1654]], in order to clarify Ryûkyû's position under Qing authority. The embassy, led by [[Zhang Xueli]]<!--張学礼--> and [[Wang Gai]]<!--王垓-->, traveled to Fuzhou along with Xie Bizhen, Sai Soryû, and Ba Sôki, but was unable to proceed to Ryûkyû, blocked by the naval forces of Zheng Chenggong ([[Coxinga]]), leader of the Ming loyalists on Taiwan.
A Qing embassy was commissioned in to journey to Ryûkyû anyway, in [[1654]], in order to clarify Ryûkyû's position under Qing authority. The embassy, led by [[Zhang Xueli]]<!--張学礼--> and [[Wang Gai]]<!--王垓-->, traveled to Fuzhou along with Xie Bizhen, Ma Zongyi, and Cai Zuolong, but was unable to proceed to Ryûkyû, blocked by the naval forces of Zheng Chenggong ([[Coxinga]]), leader of the Ming loyalists on Taiwan.
The Shunzhi Emperor died in [[1661]] and was succeeded by the [[Kangxi Emperor]], who ordered Zhang and Wang to journey to Ryûkyû to perform the official investiture rituals, and to present Shô Shitsu with a new Qing Imperial rescript. The two arrived in [[Naha]] in [[1663]] along with Sai Soryû and Xie Bizhen (Ba Sôki had died in 1659), surprising Ryukyuan officials, who had not requested investiture, and who had not been informed to expect the Chinese envoys' arrival. Furthermore, [[Shuri castle]] had been destroyed by a fire in [[1660]], and so Ryûkyû was especially unprepared to formally receive these Chinese envoys. Nevertheless, the investiture went forward, and the system or tradition of Chinese investiture envoys being sent to Ryûkyû was re-established.<ref>Nishizato Kikô. "The Problem of Royal Investiture during the Ming-Qing Transition Period." [http://venus.unive.it/okinawa/en/sunti/nishizato.html Abstract]. Paper presented at 5th International Conference on Okinawan Studies, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, September 2006.</ref>
The Shunzhi Emperor died in [[1661]] and was succeeded by the [[Kangxi Emperor]], who ordered Zhang and Wang to journey to Ryûkyû to perform the official investiture rituals, and to present Shô Shitsu with a new Qing Imperial rescript. The two arrived in [[Naha]] in [[1663]] along with Sai Soryû and Xie Bizhen (Ba Sôki had died in 1659), surprising Ryukyuan officials, who had not requested investiture, and who had not been informed to expect the Chinese envoys' arrival. Furthermore, [[Shuri castle]] had been destroyed by a fire in [[1660]], and so Ryûkyû was especially unprepared to formally receive these Chinese envoys. Nevertheless, the investiture went forward, and the system or tradition of Chinese investiture envoys being sent to Ryûkyû was re-established.<ref>Nishizato Kikô. "The Problem of Royal Investiture during the Ming-Qing Transition Period." [http://venus.unive.it/okinawa/en/sunti/nishizato.html Abstract]. Paper presented at 5th International Conference on Okinawan Studies, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, September 2006.</ref>
During both the [[1719]] and [[1756]] missions, embarrassing and damaging disputes broke out between Ryukyuan officials and members of the Chinese missions (mainly Fuzhou sailors and merchants who had come along in order to trade), concerning the amount of goods members of the mission had brought to Ryûkyû, the prices Ryûkyû was willing or able to spend to purchase those goods, and similar or related matters. (See below for some further details on these incidents.) A number of steps were then taken in the early 19th century in an effort to ensure that similar incidents would not occur again; these included increased efforts to examine the character of the servants, sailors, and merchants who were to serve as members of the missions, and enhanced regulations or enforcement of the amount of personal goods each member of the mission could bring with them to trade.<ref name=chen/>
==Preparation==
==Preparation==
It took several years for the Ryukyuan government to prepare to receive a Chinese investiture mission, an undertaking which was quite expensive for the small kingdom, and for which the Chinese government contributed not at all. When preparations were ready, Ryûkyû would sent another emissary, to present the official request for investiture (C: ''ch'ing feng''). This would be accompanied by a formal document, signed or sealed by a great many Ryukyuan officials, from the highest posts down to local lords, acknowledging widespread recognition of this particular king as the rightful king, and declaring loyalty to the man to be invested. Finally, once envoys were selected, a Ryukyuan official would meet the envoys (C: ''chieh-feng'') in Fuzhou<ref name=chen>Ch'en, Ta-Tuan. "Investiture of Liu-Ch'iu Kings in the Ch'ing Period." in Fairbank, John King (ed.) ''The Chinese World Order''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968. pp135-164.</ref>. All of these emissaries would travel with [[Ryukyuan tribute missions to China|Ryukyuan tribute missions]], and not on separate journeys in separate craft.
It took several years for the Ryukyuan government to prepare to receive a Chinese investiture mission, an undertaking which was quite expensive for the small kingdom, and for which the Chinese government contributed not at all. When preparations were ready, Ryûkyû would sent another emissary, to present the official request for investiture (C: ''ch'ing feng''). This would be accompanied by a formal document, signed or sealed by a great many Ryukyuan officials, from the highest posts down to local lords, acknowledging widespread recognition of this particular king as the rightful king, and declaring loyalty to the man to be invested. Finally, once envoys were selected, a Ryukyuan official would meet the envoys (C: ''chieh-feng'') in Fuzhou<ref name=chen>Ch'en, Ta-Tuan. "Investiture of Liu-Ch'iu Kings in the Ch'ing Period." in Fairbank, John King (ed.) ''The Chinese World Order''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968. pp135-164.</ref>. All of these emissaries would travel with [[Ryukyuan tribute missions to China|Ryukyuan tribute missions]], and not on separate journeys in separate craft.
The envoys, known as ''tien-shih'' in Chinese (J: 天史, ''tenshi''), were selected from a pool of nominees nominated by the Board of Rites, Grand Secretariat, Hanlin Academy, and Censorate. The roughly fifteen or so nominees would be presented to the Emperor, who would select a chief envoy and a vice-envoy from among them. As the investiture mission was one of formal ceremony and not one of diplomatic negotiations or foreign policy, diplomatic skill or experience was not a criterion for selection; envoys were generally chosen based on their formal classical education. Dressed and equipped with accoutrements far above their rank, the envoys
The envoys, known as ''tian-shi'' in Chinese (J: 天史, ''tenshi''), were selected from a pool of nominees nominated by the Board of Rites, Grand Secretariat, Hanlin Academy, and Censorate. The roughly fifteen or so nominees would be presented to the Emperor, who would select a chief envoy and a vice-envoy from among them. As the investiture mission was one of formal ceremony and not one of diplomatic negotiations or foreign policy, diplomatic skill or experience was not a criterion for selection; envoys were generally chosen based on their formal classical education. Dressed and equipped with accoutrements far above their rank, the envoys
were provided with a minimal amount of funds to support them on their journey. Local officials in Fuzhou saw to their accommodations there, and once in Ryûkyû, the burden was placed on the Ryukyuan government to pay for the envoys' food, shelter, entertainment, and other needs.<ref name=chen/>
were provided with a minimal amount of funds to support them on their journey. Local officials in Fuzhou saw to their accommodations there, and once in Ryûkyû, the burden was placed on the Ryukyuan government to pay for the envoys' food, shelter, entertainment, and other needs.<ref name=chen/>
* 1562 - [[Sho Gen|Shô Gen]] is invested as king.
* 1562 - [[Sho Gen|Shô Gen]] is invested as king.
* 1663 - [[Zhang Xueli]] and [[Wang Gai]] lead the first investiture mission sent by the Qing Court, re-establishing the tradition after the fall of the Ming Dynasty. [[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu]] is invested as king.
* 1654 - A mission led by Zhang Xueli and Wang Gai is organized, to travel to Ryûkyû, to discuss Ryûkyû's position under Qing authority; the mission does not make it to Ryûkyû, however, being blocked by Ming loyalists.
* 1663 - Zhang Xueli and Wang Gai lead the first investiture mission sent by the Qing Court, re-establishing the tradition after the fall of the Ming Dynasty. [[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu]] is invested as king.
* 1683 - [[Sho Tei|Shô Tei]] is invested as king. [[Wang Ji]] (1636-1699) leads the mission.
* 1683 - [[Sho Tei|Shô Tei]] is invested as king. [[Wang Ji]] (1636-1699) leads the mission.