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The chief roadways of the [[Edo period]] were the so-called ''Gokaidô'' 五街道, or "Five Highways." These included four major highways which started at [[Nihonbashi]] in [[Edo]] (modern Tokyo), one more which branched off of these, and eight auxiliary roads.
The chief roadways of the [[Edo period]] were the so-called ''Gokaidô'' 五街道, or "Five Highways." These included four major highways which started at [[Nihonbashi]] in [[Edo]] (modern Tokyo), one more which branched off of these, and eight auxiliary roads.
The system contained fifty-three ''[[sekisho]]'' (barriers, or checkpoints), and 248 [[post-stations]], or ''shukuba'', which ranged in their spacing; in some parts, it was roughly 12.1 km from one station to the next, while in other parts it was only around 4.2 km.<ref name=gokaido>Constantine Vaporis, "Linking the Realm: The Gokaidô Highway Network in Early Modern Japan," in Susan Alcock et al (eds.) ''Highways Byways and Road Systems in the Pre-Modern World'', Wiley-Blackwell (2012), 90-105.</ref>
Some records indicate that many sections of the road were quite well-maintained. Ditches running along the sides of the roads were maintained to help drain off water, sand was spread over the roads when they were wet, and in hot, dusty weather, water sprayed to settle the dust. In certain sections in the mountains, stones were carefully placed to help increase traction and prevent mudslides, while also providing for effective drainage. In other sections, rows of trees (often [[cryptomeria]], aka ''sugi'') were planted, providing shade for travelers and helping to prevent erosion. Distance markers were placed one ''[[Japanese measurements|ri]]'' apart along the road, and other markers or signs indicated major junctions. The roads were also commonly swept and cleaned when an important party, such as a daimyô's ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' procession, or a foreign embassy, was expected to be passing along that section of road.<ref name=gokaido>Constantine Vaporis, "Linking the Realm: The Gokaidô Highway Network in Early Modern Japan," in Susan Alcock et al (eds.) ''Highways Byways and Road Systems in the Pre-Modern World'', Wiley-Blackwell (2012), 90-105.</ref>
Though it is commonly cited that wheeled carts were banned from the roads of Tokugawa Japan, there is no documentary evidence for such a statute. That said, it is known that carts only appeared on certain sections of road and in certain cities. If there was such a ban, it would have served to protect the roads from the ruts and other damage created by wheels, to prevent blockage of the road resulting from spills and the like, and to protect the livelihoods of packhorse operators, who may have petitioned or otherwise voiced their desire for such a ban.<ref name=gokaido/>
The system contained fifty-three ''[[sekisho]]'' (barriers, or checkpoints), and 248 [[post-stations]], or ''shukuba'', which ranged in their spacing; in some parts, it was roughly 12.1 km from one station to the next, while in other parts it was only around 4.2 km.<ref name=gokaido/>
These post-towns were run chiefly by commoners, who were able to make personal profit in charging for lodging, horses, porters, and other forms of labor and services; however, they were required to give priority to shogunate and samurai business, and thus commoner travelers, including merchants attempting to bring goods to market, for example, were forced to either suffer considerable delays in their access to inns, horses, porters, and the like, or to seek alternative, sometimes illegal, travel routes. Despite official prohibitions on commoners riding horses, however, this was scarcely enforced, and commoners who could afford to pay did regularly hire horses, [[palanquins]], and porters.<ref name=gokaido/>
===[[Tokaido|Tôkaidô Highway]]東海道===
===[[Tokaido|Tôkaidô Highway]]東海道===
The Tôkaidô (lit. "Eastern Sea Road") was most famous of the highways, running roughly 300 miles<ref name=gokaido/> from Edo (Nihonbashi) to Kyoto ([[Sanjo Ohashi|Sanjô-Ôhashi]]), mostly along the Pacific coast, but cutting across the neck of the Izu Peninsula, where the famous [[Hakone]] check-point was located. Prior to the construction of Nihonbashi in [[1603]], the Tôkaidô was considered to begin in Kyoto, and to end, vaguely, somewhere in the [[Kanto|Kantô Plain]]; following the construction of Nihonbashi, the conceptual direction was reversed, with Edo (Nihonbashi) becoming the beginning point of the road, and Kyoto the end point.
The Tôkaidô (lit. "Eastern Sea Road") was most famous of the highways, running roughly 300 miles<ref name=gokaido/> from Edo (Nihonbashi) to Kyoto ([[Sanjo Ohashi|Sanjô-Ôhashi]]), mostly along the Pacific coast, but cutting across the neck of the Izu Peninsula, where the famous [[Hakone]] check-point was located. Prior to the construction of Nihonbashi in [[1603]], the Tôkaidô was considered to begin in Kyoto, and to end, vaguely, somewhere in the [[Kanto|Kantô Plain]]; following the construction of Nihonbashi, the conceptual direction was reversed, with Edo (Nihonbashi) becoming the beginning point of the road, and Kyoto the end point.
The most formidable natural barrier along the Tôkaidô lay just west of [[Nagoya]], where many great rivers - the [[Kiso River|Kiso]], [[Ibi River|Ibi]], [[Nagara River|Nagara]], [[Hida River|Hida]], among others - flow directly or indirectly into [[Ise Bay]] 伊勢湾. The highway made no attempt to cross the rivers, but rather left travelers to take ferries across. Beyond this point, the highway went west from [[Yokkaichi]] 四日市 through the Suzuka Pass 鈴鹿峠, and was joined at [[Kusatsu]] 草津 by the [[Nakasendo|Nakasendô highway]].
The most formidable natural barrier along the Tôkaidô lay just west of [[Nagoya]], where many great rivers - the [[Kiso River|Kiso]], [[Ibi River|Ibi]], [[Nagara River|Nagara]], [[Hida River|Hida]], among others - flow directly or indirectly into [[Ise Bay]] 伊勢湾. Beyond this point, the highway went west from [[Yokkaichi]] 四日市 through the Suzuka Pass 鈴鹿峠, and was joined at [[Kusatsu]] 草津 by the [[Nakasendo|Nakasendô highway]].
The highway made no attempt to cross the rivers, but rather left travelers to take ferries across. Regulations were put into place, however, requiring that travelers cross at these designated crossings, and not at other locations up- or down-river. In total, the Tôkaidô journey included eight river crossings by ferry, and four rivers where travelers had to ford the river on their own. Bridges were built and maintained at several other river crossings along the route, where the bridges were less likely to be lost in flash floods.<ref name=gokaido/>
The 57 stations of the Tôkaidô were located an average of 8.4 km apart from one another; a survey conducted in [[1843]] indicates that at that time each station had an average of 55 commoner inns (''[[hatagoya]]'') and an average population of 3,950.<ref name=gokaido/> The road originally ended at the Sanjô Bridge over the [[Kamo River]] in Kyoto, but four additional stations were later added. This extension, known alternatively as the Ôsaka Kaidô, Kyôkaidô, or simply considered an extension of the Tôkaidô, ended at Kôraibashi in Osaka.
The 57 stations of the Tôkaidô were located an average of 8.4 km apart from one another; a survey conducted in [[1843]] indicates that at that time each station had an average of 55 commoner inns (''[[hatagoya]]'') and an average population of 3,950.<ref name=gokaido/> The road originally ended at the Sanjô Bridge over the [[Kamo River]] in Kyoto, but four additional stations were later added. This extension, known alternatively as the Ôsaka Kaidô, Kyôkaidô, or simply considered an extension of the Tôkaidô, ended at Kôraibashi in Osaka.