Changes

Though the term ''wakô'' would come to be applied to a wide range of people, engaging in a wide range of activities, including Chinese traders and pirates, and Japanese traders, that is not to say that there were not, in fact, genuine Japanese pirates, raiders, brigands, or whatever term may wish to apply active on the seas at this time. The [[Murakami clan]]<!--see 村上水軍--> of [[Iyo province]], known for their piratical activities in the [[Inland Sea]], were among these; [[Murakami Zusho]], lord of Nôshima<!--能島--> is recorded as having led attacks on the Chinese coast, the Philippines, and parts of Indonesia. [[Iida Koichiro|Iida Kôichirô]] of Iyo and [[Kitaura Kanjuro|Kitaura Kanjûrô]] of [[Bingo province|Bingo]] are also known to have commanded raiding parties around this time. One contemporary source relates that "the seven bands" of ''wakô'', though presumably there were many more groups than that, grew to number as many as 1,000 men by 1555, if not earlier, incorporating people from a wide range of walks of life, including [[ronin]], fishermen, and others, mainly from Kyushu and Shikoku.<ref name=so1516>So. pp15-16.</ref>

Though the term ''wakô'' would come to be applied to a wide range of people, engaging in a wide range of activities, including Chinese traders and pirates, and Japanese traders, that is not to say that there were not, in fact, genuine Japanese pirates, raiders, brigands, or whatever term may wish to apply active on the seas at this time. The [[Murakami clan]]<!--see 村上水軍--> of [[Iyo province]], known for their piratical activities in the [[Inland Sea]], were among these; [[Murakami Zusho]], lord of Nôshima<!--能島--> is recorded as having led attacks on the Chinese coast, the Philippines, and parts of Indonesia. [[Iida Koichiro|Iida Kôichirô]] of Iyo and [[Kitaura Kanjuro|Kitaura Kanjûrô]] of [[Bingo province|Bingo]] are also known to have commanded raiding parties around this time. One contemporary source relates that "the seven bands" of ''wakô'', though presumably there were many more groups than that, grew to number as many as 1,000 men by 1555, if not earlier, incorporating people from a wide range of walks of life, including [[ronin]], fishermen, and others, mainly from Kyushu and Shikoku.<ref name=so1516>So. pp15-16.</ref>

Concurrent [[tribute]] missions sent by the [[Ouchi clan|Ôuchi]] and [[Hosokawa clan|Hosokawa families]] clashed in [[1523]], and burned Ningpo, becoming labeled as ''wakô''. The Chinese authorities responded by banning foreign trade in the area around Ningpo. This led in turn to a rise in illegal trade between the coastal Chinese on the one hand with Japanese and other foreigners. A number of Chinese families came to owe great debts to Japanese (or other foreign) traders, and though they sought aid from the local authorities, the foreigners resorted to piracy in order to reclaim the funds owed them, and for survival in the face of Chinese authorities seeking to capture them for the crime of participating in illegal trade.<ref>So. p5.</ref> Denied access to a satisfactory volume of official trade<ref>The Ôuchi sent the last Japanese tribute mission to China in 1549, but as tribute missions only occurred once in a number of years, and only consisted of a small number of ships (and thus, brought limited revenues), the clan desired a greater volume of trade.</ref>, the Ôuchi clan remained prominent for some time in commanding, backing, or otherwise encouraging some ''wakô'' bands including those led by prominent figures from other provinces and regions. The Ôuchi are often cited as among the chief backers of the ''wakô'', and it is through them that many draw connections between the ''wakô'' and Japanese national ambitions. However, the clan was destroyed by the [[Mori clan|Môri]] in [[1557]], while ''wakô'' activity continued.<ref>So. pp16-17. While the Ôuchi are mentioned in some contemporary Japanese sources, So Kwan-wai notes that most contemporary Chinese sources emphasize the Chinese involvement in organizing and leading ''wakô'' bands, and do not mention the Ôuchi at all.</ref>

Concurrent [[tribute]] missions sent by the [[Ouchi clan|Ôuchi]] and [[Hosokawa clan|Hosokawa families]] clashed in [[1523]], and burned Ningpo, becoming labeled as ''wakô''. The Chinese authorities responded by banning foreign trade in the area around Ningpo. This led in turn to a rise in illegal trade between the coastal Chinese on the one hand with Japanese and other foreigners. A number of Chinese officials and merchants came to owe great debts to Japanese (or other foreign) traders, and though they sought aid from the local authorities, the foreigners resorted to piracy in order to reclaim the funds owed them, and for survival in the face of Chinese authorities seeking to capture them for the crime of participating in illegal trade.<ref>So. p5.</ref> Denied access to a satisfactory volume of official trade<ref>The Ôuchi sent the last Japanese tribute mission to China in 1549, but as tribute missions only occurred once in a number of years, and only consisted of a small number of ships (and thus, brought limited revenues), the clan desired a greater volume of trade.</ref>, the Ôuchi clan remained prominent for some time in commanding, backing, or otherwise encouraging some ''wakô'' bands including those led by prominent figures from other provinces and regions. The Ôuchi are often cited as among the chief backers of the ''wakô'', and it is through them that many draw connections between the ''wakô'' and Japanese national ambitions. However, the clan was destroyed by the [[Mori clan|Môri]] in [[1557]], while ''wakô'' activity continued.<ref>So. pp16-17. While the Ôuchi are mentioned in some contemporary Japanese sources, So Kwan-wai notes that most contemporary Chinese sources emphasize the Chinese involvement in organizing and leading ''wakô'' bands, and do not mention the Ôuchi at all.</ref>

As Chinese demand for, and Japanese supply of, silver rose in the 1530s-40s, a number of Chinese merchants established themselves at bases in Kyushu, selling expensive Chinese silks for Japanese silver, in violation of the Chinese bans. These merchants, including [[Wang Zhi]] (d. 1559), Chan Hai (d. 1556), Chen Dong (d. 1556), and Ye Ming (d. 1556), along with their mixed Chinese and Japanese crews, were considered '''wakô'' by the Chinese authorities as well, despite not being Japanese, and not being involved in any true piratical or raiding activities.<ref name=arano188>Arano. p188.</ref> One Chinese primary source indicates that the proportion of ethnic Chinese among the so-called "Japanese pirates" may have been as high as ninety percent.<ref>So. p205.</ref>

As Chinese demand for, and Japanese supply of, silver rose in the 1530s-40s, a number of Chinese merchants established themselves at bases in Kyushu, selling expensive Chinese silks for Japanese silver, in violation of the Chinese bans. These merchants, including [[Wang Zhi]] (d. 1559), Chan Hai (d. 1556), Chen Dong (d. 1556), and Ye Ming (d. 1556), along with their mixed Chinese and Japanese crews, were considered '''wakô'' by the Chinese authorities as well, despite not being Japanese, and not being involved in any true piratical or raiding activities.<ref name=arano188>Arano. p188.</ref> One Chinese primary source indicates that the proportion of ethnic Chinese among the so-called "Japanese pirates" may have been as high as ninety percent.<ref>So. p205.</ref>