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China
Japan at this time was struggling to present itself to the world as a fully modern nation, equal to the great Western powers. It sought revision of a number of [[Unequal Treaties]] signed in the [[Bakumatsu period]], and was embroiled at the time in [[Taiwan Incident of 1871|a dispute with China over the Ryukyu Islands]]. Though in no position to make formal statements on behalf of the United States, nor promise any official action, Grant expressed sympathy for Japan's situation vis-a-vis the treaties, assured the Japanese officials with whom he was speaking of the US policy of supporting a strong Asia against European encroachment, and spoke out against those governments which, unlike that of the US, outright refused to even consider renegotiation of the treaties. He pushed for Japan to seek to resolve the Ryukyu situation diplomatically and peacefully.
Japan at this time was struggling to present itself to the world as a fully modern nation, equal to the great Western powers. It sought revision of a number of [[Unequal Treaties]] signed in the [[Bakumatsu period]], and was embroiled at the time in [[Taiwan Incident of 1871|a dispute with China over the Ryukyu Islands]]. Though in no position to make formal statements on behalf of the United States, nor promise any official action, Grant expressed sympathy for Japan's situation vis-a-vis the treaties, assured the Japanese officials with whom he was speaking of the US policy of supporting a strong Asia against European encroachment, and spoke out against those governments which, unlike that of the US, outright refused to even consider renegotiation of the treaties. He pushed for Japan to seek to resolve the Ryukyu situation diplomatically and peacefully.
Through his advice on these and other matters, Grant played an important role in shaping the resolution of these matters, and, some would argue<ref name=chang>Chang.</ref>, was a notable influence upon the [[Meiji Emperor]] and Meiji government officials, through whom his advice helped shape domestic and foreign policy, as well as the [[Meiji Constitution]]. In addition, it has been said<ref name=chang/> that Grant's behavior and comportment, as well as his words, earned him and the United States great respect and gratitude among the ministers and officials of the Japanese government.
==Preparations and Reception==
==Grant in China==
Grant and his wife were given a reception in Japan matching or exceeding those given them elsewhere throughout their journey. Preparations began to be made six months before their arrival.
Former President Grant stayed in China for a time in early or mid-1879, along with his family and a few others. During this time he was wined and dined, and met with Viceroy [[Li Honzhang]] in Tientsin on at least one occasion. As the Guangxu Emperor was only eight years old at the time, the former president was not granted an Imperial audience, but met with the Imperial regent [[Prince Kung]] twice, in Peking.
Japan abolished the [[Kingdom of Ryukyu|Ryûkyû Kingdom]] and annexed its territory as [[Okinawa prefecture]] in March to May that year, as a preemptive measure against Chinese actions. Though this angered China, flying in the face of its requests of Tokyo in the matter, it also made Chinese efforts to claim Okinawa as its own more difficult, as the two countries had signed a commercial treaty in [[1871]] promising to respect one another's territorial sovereignty, and the former kingdom was now Japanese territory. This would also, in theory, make it more difficult for Grant, or the leaders of any of the major Western powers, to side with China in this matter.
Though Grant was traveling as a private citizen and, as a former president, wielded no real political authority or power, Li and Kung sought his support in the Ryûkyû dispute as something they could leverage as the symbolic support of the United States. After meeting with Viceroy Li in Tientsin and discussing the matter, Grant told Li that he would meet with the Japanese, hear their side of the story, and then make every effort he could, as a private citizen with no formal political power, to ensure the peaceful resolution of the dispute.
When he met with Prince Kung, the prince explained to Grant that the Chinese sought not to annex the Ryukyus themselves, but to restore the kingdom, along with its [[tribute|tributary]] status. He assured the former president that China was not interested in the domestic affairs of the island kingdom, nor which other countries it made agreements with and paid tribute to, but only that the [[Chinese investiture envoys|investiture rituals and relationship]] between China and Ryûkyû be restored and continued, and that Japan rescind any claims to exclusive sovereignty over the islands.
Viceroy Li similarly aimed to convince Grant of China's relatively altruistic motives in seeing the kingdom restored as an independent power, and denied any Chinese intentions or desires to annex it. He explained that China had never claimed sovereignty over the islands, only a suzerain relationship and close ties involving tribute, investiture, the strong involvement of people of Chinese descent in education and government in Ryûkyû, and a system by which Ryukyuans studied and sojourned in China. Grant was also told that the Ryukyuans preferred their association with China, a sentiment which would have been backed up by recent letters from Shô Tai in exile in Tokyo requesting Chinese assistance, and by those of Ryukyuan official [[Kochi Chojo|Kôchi Chôjô]] who was resident in China at this time, though it is unclear if Grant would have seen these letters or met with Kôchi ''[[ueekata]]''.
Grant was, however, unconvinced by Kung's altruistic-seeming claims to not have an interest in the kingdom's affairs or in seeing the tributary relationship restored. Additionally, Grant is said to have had great admiration for Japan's military modernization efforts, and to have believed that if it came down to war, Japanese victory would have been inevitable<ref name=Kerr>Kerr.</ref>.
Finally, Li addressed the strategic importance of the islands, and the possibility, should Japan maintain control of Ryûkyû, that Japan could block Chinese access to the Pacific. He also asserted to Grant that if Japan were to maintain control of Ryûkyû, it would not be long before it sought control of Taiwan and Korea as well.
Grant is said to have simply listened, promising to take into consideration all that Li and Kung had told him, that he would also take into account what the Japanese had to say, and volunteered that he might serve as arbiter or mediator should it be required to achieve a peaceful resolution.
==Preparations and Reception in Japan==
During their stay in Japan, Grant and his wife were given a reception matching or exceeding those given them elsewhere throughout their journey. Preparations began to be made six months before their arrival.
Prominent businessmen [[Shibusawa Eiichi]] and [[Iwasaki Yanosuke]] each contributed several thousand yen<ref>At the time, the yen-dollar exchange rate was roughly 1:1. The total expenditure by government and business leaders in excess of 68,000 yen on receptions, functions, accommodations, travel, etc for the Grants was roughly equal to $60,336 in 1879 US dollars.</ref> to the effort, and a committee of government officials was established to organize the receptions for both the Grants, and for two European princes who would visit Japan the same year. A recommendation to receive General Grant as though he were a royal prince earned immediate approval. [[Yoshida Kiyonari]], the Japanese ambassador to Washington who had served during Grant's time in office, was recalled, and made use of his familiarity with the Grants personally, as well as with American customs, to play an important role in the effort. The former President was escorted to official functions by Yoshida and [[Date Munenari]], while [[Ishibashi Munakata]] and [[Tateno Gozo|Tateno Gôzô]] of the [[Imperial Household]] attended to his accommodations.
Prominent businessmen [[Shibusawa Eiichi]] and [[Iwasaki Yanosuke]] each contributed several thousand yen<ref>At the time, the yen-dollar exchange rate was roughly 1:1. The total expenditure by government and business leaders in excess of 68,000 yen on receptions, functions, accommodations, travel, etc for the Grants was roughly equal to $60,336 in 1879 US dollars.</ref> to the effort, and a committee of government officials was established to organize the receptions for both the Grants, and for two European princes who would visit Japan the same year. A recommendation to receive General Grant as though he were a royal prince earned immediate approval. [[Yoshida Kiyonari]], the Japanese ambassador to Washington who had served during Grant's time in office, was recalled, and made use of his familiarity with the Grants personally, as well as with American customs, to play an important role in the effort. The former President was escorted to official functions by Yoshida and [[Date Munenari]], while [[Ishibashi Munakata]] and [[Tateno Gozo|Tateno Gôzô]] of the [[Imperial Household]] attended to his accommodations.
==The Ryûkyû Matter==
==The Ryûkyû Matter==
It was during his stay in [[Nikko|Nikkô]]<ref>It is said that when encouraged by his Japanese escorts to cross the famous Shinbashi (神橋), a privilege restricted to those of royal or imperial blood, he declined. Historian Richard Chang argues the importance of anecdotes such as these in showing the humility of Gen. Grant and indicating one of the key elements of his attitude, approach, and behavior which earned him great respect at a time when Japan perceived the US, and all major Western powers, as arrogant and domineering.</ref> from July 17 to 31 that Grant set to the task of considering and discussing the Ryukyu dispute.
It was during his stay in [[Nikko|Nikkô]]<ref>It is said that when encouraged by his Japanese escorts to cross the famous Shinbashi (神橋), a privilege restricted to those of royal or imperial blood, he declined. Historian Richard Chang argues the importance of anecdotes such as these in showing the humility of Gen. Grant and indicating one of the key elements of his attitude, approach, and behavior which earned him great respect at a time when Japan perceived the US, and all major Western powers, as arrogant and domineering.</ref> from July 17 to 31 that Grant set to the task of considering and discussing the Ryukyu dispute.
On July 22, Grant met with [[Minister of War]] [[Saigo Tsugumichi|Saigô Tsugumichi]], [[Minister of the Interior]] [[Ito Hirobumi|Itô Hirobumi]], and Yoshida, at his Nikkô inn. He advised the Japanese to seek a peaceful resolution, and to negotiate directly with China, without any third parties which might complicate negotiations and pursue their own goals. He also advised that a Sino-Japanese War would benefit the European powers which sought to further exploit a weakened Asia.
On July 22, Grant met with [[Minister of War]] [[Saigo Tsugumichi|Saigô Tsugumichi]], [[Minister of the Interior]] [[Ito Hirobumi|Itô Hirobumi]], and Yoshida, at his Nikkô inn. He advised the Japanese to seek a peaceful resolution, and to negotiate directly with China, without any third parties which might complicate negotiations and pursue their own goals. He also advised that a Sino-Japanese War would benefit the European powers which sought to further exploit a weakened Asia.
Popularly organized receptions and events, which had continued throughout Grant's stay in Japan, reached a climax with a festival in [[Ueno Park]] on August 25 which was attended by the Emperor.
Popularly organized receptions and events, which had continued throughout Grant's stay in Japan, reached a climax with a festival in [[Ueno Park]] on August 25 which was attended by the Emperor.
Though he had never before during his time in Japan prepared a speech ahead of time, he did so for his official farewell address on August 30.
Though he had never before during his time in Japan prepared a speech ahead of time, he did so for his official farewell address on August 30, before departing Japan on September 3, 1879.
==Post-Japan==
==Post-Japan==
Though he had visited a great many countries during his two and a half year tour, it is said that Grant truly held a special admiration, sympathy, and affection for Japan, which he saw as a rising power in the East, capable of great things.
Though he had visited a great many countries during his two and a half year tour, it is said that Grant truly held a special admiration, sympathy, and affection for Japan, which he saw as a rising power in the East, capable of great things<ref name=chang/>.
Grant fell ill in 1885, and died later that year. During his illness, the Japanese ambassador to Washington was sent by the Emperor to visit the former president at his home in upstate New York on at least four occasions.
Grant fell ill in 1885, and died later that year. During his illness, the Japanese ambassador to Washington was sent by the Emperor to visit the former president at his home in upstate New York on at least four occasions.
During discussions surrounding the composition of the [[Meiji Constitution]] in [[1889]], the Meiji Emperor is said to have drawn heavily upon Grant's advice.
During discussions surrounding the composition of the [[Meiji Constitution]] in [[1889]], the Meiji Emperor is said to have drawn heavily upon Grant's advice<ref name=chang/>.
A monument in his honor was erected in Ueno Park in 1929, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of his visit, at the site where he and Mrs. Grant had planted two trees. A special memorial service was held at this site in 1935, on the 50th anniversary of Grant's death. Since 1946, special memorial services have been held at this site, in Grant's honor, every year on Memorial Day.
A monument in his honor was erected in Ueno Park in 1929, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of his visit, at the site where he and Mrs. Grant had planted two trees. A special memorial service was held at this site in 1935, on the 50th anniversary of Grant's death. Since 1946, special memorial services have been held at this site, in Grant's honor, every year on Memorial Day.
==References==
==References==
*Chang, Richard. "General Grant's 1879 Visit to Japan." ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 24:4 (1969). pp373-392.
*Chang, Richard. "General Grant's 1879 Visit to Japan." ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 24:4 (1969). pp373-392.
*Kerr, George. ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. Revised Edition. Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2000. pp376, 383-390, ''passim''.
*"Ulysses S. Grant." [http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/UlyssesSGrant WhiteHouse.gov]. Accessed 4 January 2010.
*"Ulysses S. Grant." [http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/UlyssesSGrant WhiteHouse.gov]. Accessed 4 January 2010.
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