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===Stasis===
===Stasis===
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Overall, the 18th century was characterized by cultural maturation, economic stability and stasis, and political incompetence.
Overall, the 18th century was characterized by cultural maturation, and economic stability and stasis; political corruption and other factors led to decline towards the end of the century and a return to many of the problems of Genroku.
The years immediately following Genroku were characterized by reforms, leading into a century of relative stasis and stability as compared to the fantastic growth and change of the previous century. During the brief reigns of [[Tokugawa Ienobu]] ([[1709]]-[[1713]]) and [[Tokugawa Ietsugu]] ([[1713]]-[[1716]]), shogunal advisor [[Arai Hakuseki]] oversaw a number of reforms, principally a reversal of the currency debasement effected in [[1695]]. Though this did not truly solve the financial problems of the shogunal treasury, nor of the country as a whole, it was an important step towards putting an end to the inflation and frivolous spending of the Genroku period.
The years immediately following Genroku were characterized by reforms, leading into a century of relative stasis and stability as compared to the fantastic growth and change of the previous century. During the brief reigns of [[Tokugawa Ienobu]] ([[1709]]-[[1713]]) and [[Tokugawa Ietsugu]] ([[1713]]-[[1716]]), shogunal advisor [[Arai Hakuseki]] oversaw a number of reforms, principally a reversal of the currency debasement effected in [[1695]]. Though this did not truly solve the financial problems of the shogunal treasury, nor of the country as a whole, it was an important step towards putting an end to the inflation and frivolous spending of the Genroku period.
The economic stasis of the century was reflective of poor financial policies on the part of the shogunate, and the effects of numerous natural disasters and famines. However, it was also the result of the fact that many economic developments simply reached their maximum levels. Agricultural intensification of land had reached its fullest possible extent, as did the reclamation of land for these purposes. Trade routes, by land, river, and sea, were fully established and operating at a regular pace, with little room for growth or expansion, as were business operations in the major cities and ports. Silver, gold, and copper mines were largely exhausted, and deforestation was becoming a serious problem in some regions.
The economic stasis of the century was reflective of poor financial policies on the part of the shogunate, and the effects of numerous natural disasters and famines. However, it was also the result of the fact that many economic developments simply reached their maximum levels. Agricultural intensification of land had reached its fullest possible extent, as did the reclamation of land for these purposes. Trade routes, by land, river, and sea, were fully established and operating at a regular pace, with little room for growth or expansion, as were business operations in the major cities and ports. Silver, gold, and copper mines were largely exhausted, and deforestation was becoming a serious problem in some regions.
Shogun [[Tokugawa Yoshimune]] (r. [[1716]]-[[1745]]) had previous administrative experience as the ''daimyô'' of [[Kii province]] and took steps to stabilize the economy, recover the shogunate's financial situation, and consolidate its power. He created a Treasury department within the shogunate, reduced the number of ''hatamoto'', and oversaw a number of other reorganizations to these ends. He also sought to encourage further production, both in agriculture and in goods such as textiles and oils. These policies were well-intentioned, but yielded limited results in a country already producing more or less at maximum capacity, given the technologies and economic structures of the time. Efforts to stabilize the currency, balance the government budget and ensure an adequate food supply throughout the country were likewise challenged by typhoons, famines, and other unavoidable phenomena; some degree of stability was achieved, but not necessarily with true assurances of prosperity.
Perhaps the most crucial economic and social developments of the 18th century can be seen in the gradual restructuring of rural society over the course of the period. Urbanization caused extended families to break up, households to shrink, and family structures to change. This, combined with new technologies, increased access to markets, and the dangers of crop failures led to the development of increased by-employments on the part of rural farmers; many people across the country came to take part in secondary economic activities, such as artisan work, in addition to farming. By the end of the 18th century, rural cottage industries had sprung up all across the archipelago, producing a wide variety of goods, primarily textiles; these rural "country places," as [[Thomas Smith]] calls them, were closely connected to the nation's trade networks and to merchant establishments in the cities. Proto-industrialization in Japan, unlike in Europe, was based in the countryside, where materials, labor, and land were cheaper, and where businessmen could avoid the taxation and oppressive guild structures of the cities.
The reigns of the shoguns following Yoshimune show the beginnings of decline, the final decades of the century being characterized primarily by political corruption and rampant inflation. The problems of these decades are usually associated with a shogunal official by the name of [[Tanuma Okitsugu]], who gained significant power and became Tairô in [[1767]]. Bribes became quite common within the halls of power, and morals decayed on the streets.
The [[1783]] eruption of [[Mt. Asama]], combined with the [[Great Tenmei Famine]], which lasted almost ten years, was widely taken as an ominous omen and symbol that the country was in need of serious change and a return to virtuous leadership. Following Tanuma's death, [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]] rose to prominence among the ''rôjû'' and oversaw extensive financial reforms and the imposition of strict sumptuary laws known as the [[Kansei Reforms]]. These reforms, like others earlier in the Edo period, were based on notions of propriety and the idea that if people dressed and acted according to their traditional roles, society as a whole (i.e. the nation) could return to prosperity. In other words, the reforms were founded more on Neo-Confucian philosophy than on practical understandings of the economic and social reforms that were needed. Nevertheless, even as the government cracked down on free expression, economic benefits were seen.
The end of the 18th century also saw the emergence of significant expressions of anti-shogunate sentiment. A number of writers and thinkers spoke out against the shogunate, seeking not the overthrow of the entire system, but still a return to virtuous rule. The [[Mito school]] and ''[[rangaku]]'' and ''[[kokugaku]]'' movements were just two of the schools of thought that emerged significantly in this period, alongside a number of ''[[shinshukyo|shinshûkyô]]'' (New Religions) and writers such as [[Ogyu Sorai|Ogyû Sorai]] and [[Hiraga Gennai]]. Discontent was of course not limited to the elite, and the period saw a great many [[peasant uprisings]] as well.
===Decline and Fall===
===Decline and Fall===