Mongol invasions

Mongol, Chinese, and Korean forces under Kublai Khan vs. Japanese forces under Dazai Shôni Tsunetsugu

• Japanese: 元寇 (Genkou)
• Period: 1274 & 1281
• Place: Kyushu, esp. Hakata Bay

The Mongol Empire invaded and sought to conquer Japan in 1274 and again in 1281. Both attempts ultimately failed, and represent the closest Japan has ever come to being invaded and conquered since prior to the Nara period. The battles involved a coordination of samurai forces from much of the archipelago, representing a degree of early national identity, unity, and organization. These continue today to be considered among the most important military events in Japanese history, and are significant in the larger global view as well, representing a check to Mongol expansion.

Leadup

Envoys of Kublai Khan delivered a formal message from the Khan to the shogunate's regional Kyushu headquarters in Dazaifu in 1268, commanding Japan to submit or be invaded; the missive was passed on to Kamakura and Kyoto, but was ultimately ignored. Following the reception of another message to the same effect in 1271, the Kamakura shogunate ordered Dazaifu, along with all the shugo and jitô, to begin strengthening defenses. Samurai from Kyushu who were residing in Kamakura were returned to the island, and a number of the shogun's own direct retainers (kenin) began journeying towards Kyushu as well, along with a sizeable army.

Battle of Bun'ei

A Mongol ambassador arrived in Dazaifu in late 1272, and was rejected and expelled on the orders of the shogunate. The Mongol fleet arrived soon afterwards, seizing Tsushima and Ikishima with little difficulty; a detachment was sent to take the port of Hirado, while the bulk of the fleet landed at Hakata, on the north shore of Kyushu, a short distance from Dazaifu, on the 19th day of the 10th month of Bun'ei 11 (1274). Messengers were immediately sent out, sounding the alarm of the invasion, and the gathered forces across Kyushu moved towards the port city. Pontoons were laid across the Chikugo River to allow forces from the southern provinces of the island to travel more quickly.

The conflict which followed is known as the "Battle of Bun'ei" (文永の役, Bun'ei no eki) as it took place during the Imperial era of Bun'ei. It is also commonly known in English as the "First Battle of Hakata Bay".

Dazai Shôni Tsunetsugu, head of the Dazaifu government, commanded the entire Japanese force, while Shimazu Hisatsune of Satsuma province oversaw the defense of the bay. George Sansom reports that the invasion force consisted of roughly 300 large vessels and 400-500 smaller craft, carrying 15,000 Mongol and Chinese troops, plus 8,000 Koreans and an advance force, along with 7,000 Korean and Chinese sailors, though these numbers, along with those on the Japanese side, remain a subject of intense debate among scholars.

The invasion began in earnest around dawn the following day, the 20th day of the 10th month. The Mongol forces, with support from their ships, entered the town of Hakata and were engaged by the samurai army. The Mongols had a distinct advantage over the Japanese, having more extensive combat experience, a variety of highly effective long-range weapons, and better tactical and strategic organization. Unlike the samurai who were used to single combat, most of whom had not seen a conflict of this scale within their lifetimes, the Mongols had extensive experience fighting in large groups. Though the samurai were likely as skilled and experienced with the Japanese bow as with the sword, their enemy had a technological advantage in this field as well, wielding crossbows, the now-famous Mongol recurved composite bow which was a crucial element of their victories across mainland Asia, and various other missile weapons, making use of incendiary and more conventional projectiles.

The Japanese forces fought a losing battle until nightfall, and retreated to a series of earthwork fortifications at Mizuki, a few miles inland, for the night. Reinforcements were on their way from Honshu, and if the Kyushu forces could hold off the Mongols long enough, though they would suffer extensive casualties, in the end the reinforcements would be able to overwhelm the invaders by pure strength of numbers. This scenario, however, did not play out.

That night, a storm struck, and after setting the town of Hakata aflame, the Mongol warriors retreated to their ships, and withdrew, calling off the invasion. Many Mongol ships were lost in the storm, up to 200 according to some sources; Korean records indicate that 13,000 died in the invasion, many of whom it can be assumed died in the storm.

In the aftermath of the first invasion, efforts were made to shore up defenses on the western and northern coasts of Kyushu, both in terms of expanding and strengthening earthwork fortifications and in terms of increasing the number of warriors in each garrison. Fortifications were established at Hakata, and the punishments for avoiding military service were made more severe.

Another missive arrived from the Khan, threatening a new invasion and demanding that the "King of Japan" submit to Mongol suzerainty and present himself at Beijing.

References

• Sansom, George. A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958.