Changes

Wigs built around a copper wire skeleton are the traditional standard.

Wigs built around a copper wire skeleton are the traditional standard.

Actors wear a skull cap called a ''[[habutae]]'' under their wigs. Those worn by ''[[onnagata]]'' (actors playing female roles) are purple in color, and are known as ''murasaki bôshi'' (lit. "purple hat"). Though these purple cloths are today invisible under the wigs, kabuki actors were for much of the Edo period forbidden from hiding their shaved pates (the mark that they were, in fact, adult men and not women) under a wig, and were, further, subject to periodic inspections to make sure their hair was maintained at within a legal length; the use of a cloth to cover the bald area was permitted however, and it became standard that a purple or persimmon-dyed cloth be used.<ref name=shively>Donald Shively, "Bakufu Versus Kabuki," in Leiter (ed.), ''A Kabuki Reader'', 33-59.</ref>

Actors wear a skull cap called a ''[[habutae]]'' under their wigs. Those worn by ''[[onnagata]]'' (actors playing female roles) are purple in color, and are known as ''murasaki bôshi'' (lit. "purple hat"). Though these purple cloths are today invisible under the wigs, kabuki actors were for much of the Edo period forbidden from hiding their shaved pates (the mark that they were, in fact, adult men and not women) under a wig, and were, further, subject to periodic inspections to make sure their hair was maintained at within a legal length; the use of a cloth to cover the bald area was permitted however, and it became standard that a purple or persimmon-dyed cloth be used.

===Aspects of Performance===

===Aspects of Performance===

The origins of kabuki are typically attributed to a woman known as [[Izumo no Okuni]], whose troupe's performances, on temporary stages set up in the Kawaramachi dry riverbed of the [[Kamo River]] in [[Kyoto]], beginning in [[1603]], are said to have been the very first "kabuki" performances. However, some scholars point out that these performances, often referred to today as "Okuni kabuki," were likely not radically different from those performed by other women's groups at the time, and drew heavily upon recent performance trends of the [[Azuchi-Momoyama period]].<ref>McQueen Tokita. p230.</ref> These earliest "kabuki" performances consisted chiefly of showy dances, with a minimum of plot or characterization, and were much more similar to today's ''[[taishu engeki|taishû engeki]]'' than the more fully staged and heavily narrative form that kabuki has since evolved into. The musical accompaniment for Okuni kabuki is believed to have consisted of the standard Noh ensemble - chiefly flutes and drums - with only a few other instruments, such as the ''shinobue'' flute and ''[[surigane]]'' hand-gong added in; ''kouta'' was the dominant style of music. The shamisen would not become standard until around [[1650]], bringing with it a dramatic shift in kabuki music; it may have been used prior to that time, but it has also been suggested that Okuni kabuki may have only used the shamisen as a stage prop, rather than as an instrument incorporated into the musical accompaniment.<ref>Tsubaki, 304-305.</ref>

The origins of kabuki are typically attributed to a woman known as [[Izumo no Okuni]], whose troupe's performances, on temporary stages set up in the Kawaramachi dry riverbed of the [[Kamo River]] in [[Kyoto]], beginning in [[1603]], are said to have been the very first "kabuki" performances. However, some scholars point out that these performances, often referred to today as "Okuni kabuki," were likely not radically different from those performed by other women's groups at the time, and drew heavily upon recent performance trends of the [[Azuchi-Momoyama period]].<ref>McQueen Tokita. p230.</ref> These earliest "kabuki" performances consisted chiefly of showy dances, with a minimum of plot or characterization, and were much more similar to today's ''[[taishu engeki|taishû engeki]]'' than the more fully staged and heavily narrative form that kabuki has since evolved into. The musical accompaniment for Okuni kabuki is believed to have consisted of the standard Noh ensemble - chiefly flutes and drums - with only a few other instruments, such as the ''shinobue'' flute and ''[[surigane]]'' hand-gong added in; ''kouta'' was the dominant style of music. The shamisen would not become standard until around [[1650]], bringing with it a dramatic shift in kabuki music; it may have been used prior to that time, but it has also been suggested that Okuni kabuki may have only used the shamisen as a stage prop, rather than as an instrument incorporated into the musical accompaniment.<ref>Tsubaki, 304-305.</ref>

The word "kabuki" (歌舞伎) is today written with three [[kanji|characters]] meaning song (歌), dance (舞), and technique or skill (伎). However, the name of the art form is said to derive from, or be related to, the term ''[[kabukimono]]'' (傾奇者), which referred to eccentric types seen on the streets of Kyoto and Edo around that time, who dressed and behaved unusually, and in general were described as leaning (傾) towards the bizarre and unconventional (奇). Many could likely be validly characterized as ruffians or street toughs; many were likely also involved in gambling or other unsavory or even violent activities.<ref name=shively/> Okuni herself is said to have been a ''kabukimono'', along with [[Nagoya Sansaburo|Nagoya Sansaburô]], a figure often said to have been Okuni's onstage partner and off-stage lover, and worthy of credit as co-founder of kabuki theater, but who might in reality have never met Okuni, or might not even have existed at all. The riverbeds were very much lower-class areas, filled with people and activities the authorities considered undesirables. At least in the earliest days of kabuki, if not once formal theatre buildings were erected, violence often erupted among the crowds, as one audience member accidentally brushed up against another's scabbard, or stepped on someone's foot. These violent clashes contributed to [[Tokugawa Ieyasu|Tokugawa Ieyasu's]] decision to ban kabuki from his castle-town of [[Sunpu]] as early as [[1608]] (this also indicates that kabuki had spread fairly quickly, as far as Sunpu in only five years). Still, even in these early years, kabuki was already popular not only among commoners, but among samurai and courtiers as well, to such an extent that it is said to have had some impact on court ladies' fashions or behavior.<ref name=shively/>

The word "kabuki" (歌舞伎) is today written with three [[kanji|characters]] meaning song (歌), dance (舞), and technique or skill (伎). However, the name of the art form is said to derive from, or be related to, the term ''[[kabukimono]]'' (傾奇者), which referred to eccentric types seen on the streets of Kyoto and Edo around that time, who dressed and behaved unusually, and in general were described as leaning (傾) towards the bizarre and unconventional (奇). Many could likely be validly characterized as ruffians or street toughs; many were likely also involved in gambling or other unsavory or even violent activities. Okuni herself is said to have been a ''kabukimono'', along with [[Nagoya Sansaburo|Nagoya Sansaburô]], a figure often said to have been Okuni's onstage partner and off-stage lover, and worthy of credit as co-founder of kabuki theater, but who might in reality have never met Okuni, or might not even have existed at all. The riverbeds were very much lower-class areas, filled with people and activities the authorities considered undesirables. At least in the earliest days of kabuki, if not once formal theater buildings were erected, violence often erupted among the crowds, as one audience member accidentally brushed up against another's scabbard, or stepped on someone's foot. These violent clashes contributed to [[Tokugawa Ieyasu|Tokugawa Ieyasu's]] decision to ban kabuki from his castle-town of [[Sunpu]] as early as [[1608]] (this also indicates that kabuki had spread fairly quickly, as far as Sunpu in only five years). Still, even in these early years, kabuki was already popular not only among commoners, but among samurai and courtiers as well, to such an extent that it is said to have had some impact on court ladies' fashions or behavior.

The so-called ''onna kabuki'' ("women kabuki") performances also served as advertising for the young men and women themselves, as prostitutes. Skits often had brothels as the settings, and involved lewd dialogue and movements; very often, the young men and women of the troupe each played the opposite gender, enhancing the humor of the performances.<ref name=shively/> As a result of their association with prostitution, in [[1629]], the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] banned women from appearing onstage. This came after an incident the previous year in which a performance by a kabuki dancer named Azuma was believed to have caused a fight, leading to all female kabuki performers, dancers, and ''[[joruri|jôruri]]'' chanters being banned. The 1629 edict is the standard date cited as marking the ban on women's kabuki, though in fact the fact that the ban was reissued several times over the course of the 1630s-40s suggests that women continued to appear onstage, in violation of the ban, until at least 1647.<ref name=shively/> Professional kabuki<ref>''[[Jishibai]]'' rural/regional amateur performances, as well as those performed by universities and other amateur contexts, often feature both men and women on-stage; in addition, there are a limited number of women-only troupes officially endorsed by the [[Ichikawa family]] or other segments of the professional kabuki establishment.</ref> remains a male-only theater form today.

The so-called ''onna kabuki'' ("women kabuki") performances also served as advertising for the young men and women themselves, as [[courtesans|prostitutes]]. Skits often had brothels as the settings, and involved lewd dialogue and movements; very often, the young men and women of the troupe each played the opposite gender, enhancing the humor of the performances. As a result of their association with prostitution, in [[1629]], the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] banned women from appearing onstage. This came after an incident the previous year in which a performance by a kabuki dancer named Azuma was believed to have caused a fight, leading to all female kabuki performers, dancers, and ''[[joruri|jôruri]]'' chanters being banned. The 1629 edict is the standard date cited as marking the ban on women's kabuki, though in fact the fact that the ban was reissued several times over the course of the 1630s-40s suggests that women continued to appear onstage, in violation of the ban, until at least 1647. Professional kabuki<ref>''[[Jishibai]]'' rural/regional amateur performances, as well as those performed by universities and other amateur contexts, often feature both men and women on-stage; in addition, there are a limited number of women-only troupes officially endorsed by the [[Ichikawa family]] or other segments of the professional kabuki establishment.</ref> remains a male-only theater form today.

''Onna kabuki'' was thus replaced by so-called ''wakashû kabuki'' ("young men kabuki"), which had been active since at least 1612,<ref name=shively/> and in which beautiful young men played all the roles. This marked the beginnings of the tradition of the ''[[onnagata]]'', though ''wakashû kabuki'' contained even less narrative content than ''onna kabuki'', consisting more fully of dance pieces. ''[[Koto]]'' was sometimes incorporated into the musical ensembles in ''wakashû kabuki'', the only string instrument used in Japanese theater prior to the introduction of the shamisen. ''Kouta'' remained the dominant style of music, ''nagauta'' having not yet replaced it.

''Onna kabuki'' was thus replaced by so-called ''wakashû kabuki'' ("young men kabuki"), which had been active since at least 1612, and in which beautiful young men played all the roles. This marked the beginnings of the tradition of the ''[[onnagata]]'', though ''wakashû kabuki'' contained even less narrative content than ''onna kabuki'', consisting more fully of dance pieces. ''[[Koto]]'' was sometimes incorporated into the musical ensembles in ''wakashû kabuki'', the only string instrument used in Japanese theater prior to the introduction of the shamisen. ''Kouta'' remained the dominant style of music, ''nagauta'' having not yet replaced it.

The young men in ''wakashû kabuki'', however, like their female predecessors, performed as prostitutes, and it was not long before ''wakashû kabuki'' came to an end as well, due to the same shogunate concerns about public propriety and morality. In [[1642]], the shogunate banned actors from dressing as women onstage, but in response to widespread popular opposition, the authorities relented two years later, allowing men to once again portray women, but only so long as it was made clear that they were, in fact, males. In [[1664]], this was reinforced by a ban on men using wigs to hide their shaved pates; however, cloths or scarves were allowed to be used to cover it, and it soon became standard and traditional for a purple or persimmon-dyed cloth to be used for that purpose. The use of wigs with a copper-wire skeleton is said to date from this time. Actors were further forbidden in [[1648]] from engaging in homosexual activities, though subsequent reissuings of this ban would seem to indicate that it was not too effective.<ref name=shively/>

The young men in ''wakashû kabuki'', however, like their female predecessors, performed as prostitutes, and it was not long before ''wakashû kabuki'' came to an end as well, due to the same shogunate concerns about public propriety and morality. In [[1642]], the shogunate banned actors from dressing as women onstage, but in response to widespread popular opposition, the authorities relented two years later, allowing men to once again portray women, but only so long as it was made clear that they were, in fact, males. In [[1664]], this was reinforced by a ban on men using wigs to hide their shaved pates; however, cloths or scarves were allowed to be used to cover it, and it soon became standard and traditional for a purple or persimmon-dyed cloth to be used for that purpose. The use of wigs with a copper-wire skeleton is said to date from this time. Actors were further forbidden in [[1648]] from engaging in homosexual activities, though subsequent reissuings of this ban would seem to indicate that it was not too effective.

 

''Wakashû kabuki'' was followed by ''yarô kabuki'' in [[1652]], when laws were changed again, now allowing only older men to perform onstage. This eliminated the element of prostitution from kabuki, and marks the beginning of kabuki's shift towards becoming a more purely theatrical form. Younger actors would eventually be permitted back onto the stage, however.

''Wakashû kabuki'' was followed by ''yarô kabuki'' in [[1652]], when laws were changed again, now allowing only older men to perform onstage. This eliminated the element of prostitution from kabuki, and marks the beginning of kabuki's shift towards becoming a more purely theatrical form. Younger actors would eventually be permitted back onto the stage, however.

Despite the shogunate's concerns about kabuki as a negative moral influence, the shogunate also at times patronized the art form. Troupes performed at [[Edo castle]] four times in [[1650]]-[[1651]].<ref name=shively/> Some ''[[Daimyo|daimyô]]'' are also known to have patronized the art, though in sharp contrast to Noh, kabuki would continue to always be primarily a commoner/popular art.

Despite the shogunate's concerns about kabuki as a negative moral influence, the shogunate never sought to ban kabuki entirely, seeing it, like prostitution, as a necessary evil and believing that an outright ban would only bring further trouble. Not only would a ban run the risk of inspiring protest or even riots, but banning it only in Edo would lead to numerous wealthy patrons, commercial businesses, and the like leaving the city and weakening its economy. As a result, the authorities merely aimed to control kabuki, restricting it to particular areas of the city, and to particular style and content. At times, the shogunate even patronized the art form. Troupes performed at [[Edo castle]] four times in [[1650]]-[[1651]]. Some ''[[Daimyo|daimyô]]'' are also known to have patronized the art, though in sharp contrast to Noh, kabuki would continue to always be primarily a commoner/popular art.

 

 

 

 

Edicts issued by the shogunate chiefly included attempts to restrict or eliminate prostitution (including same-sex relations) among those associated with the theaters, sumptuary regulations aimed at keeping the costumes, architecture, and other material aspects of the theaters within the boundaries of what was appropriate for commoners, and bans on certain political content. Sumptuary laws issued in the 1630s-60s attempted to ban kabuki actors and ''ningyô jôruri'' puppets from wearing sumptuous fabrics onstage; however, by the late 1660s, the authorities began to concede ground on this.<ref>Actors were also forbidden from riding in palanquins or on horseback, though this was often violated, and their swords could be painted wood, but could not be made of metal, nor covered in metal foil to give the impression of being a real blade.</ref> As for the matter of policing content, as with policies regarding the content of ''ukiyo-e'' prints, any major samurai figures or events from roughly the 1570s onwards were forbidden from being portrayed, as were current events whether political or popular in nature. Nevertheless, plays based on recent scandals ([[shinju|love suicides]], revenge stories, etc.), and plays commenting on contemporary politics but faintly disguised by setting them in the historical or literary past, were among the most common and popular. Kabuki was tolerated as a commoner theatre, but it was strongly discouraged that samurai, especially high-ranking lords, should attend; they regularly did, however. Theaters constructed temporary screens to shield elites from being seen by the ''hoi polloi'', and made sure they could be put up and taken down quite quickly, in order to avoid enforcement of a series of bans on such screens issued repeatedly beginning in 1646. Many lower-ranking samurai, though also forbidden from going to the kabuki theaters, did so relatively openly, purchasing box seats often without screens. Elite ladies, meanwhile, very often did not go into the theaters, but merely peeked from within their palanquins in through the entrance of the theater; this was a common enough practice that edicts were issued specifically banning it.

===Genroku===

===Genroku===

[[Image:Torii Kiyomasu - Ichikawa Danjuro I in role of Takenuki Goro.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Ichikawa Danjuro I|Ichikawa Danjûrô I]] as Takenuki Gorô, in a [[ukiyo-e|woodblock print]] by [[Torii Kiyomasu]].]]

[[Image:Torii Kiyomasu - Ichikawa Danjuro I in role of Takenuki Goro.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Ichikawa Danjuro I|Ichikawa Danjûrô I]] as Takenuki Gorô, in a [[ukiyo-e|woodblock print]] by [[Torii Kiyomasu]].]]

The [[Genroku period]] ([[1688]]-[[1704]]) is generally cited as marking the beginning of kabuki's development into its mature form. The period saw numerous innovations by some of the most famous and influential figures in early kabuki history, including playwright [[Chikamatsu Monzaemon]] and actor [[Sakata Tojuro I|Sakata Tôjûrô I]] who pioneered the softer ''[[wagoto]]'' style of acting which later grew to form the core of [[Kamigata]] (Kyoto-Osaka) kabuki. [[Yoshizawa Ayame I]] is celebrated as a pioneering ''onnagata'', and [[Ichikawa Danjuro I|Ichikawa Danjûrô I]] created the bold ''[[aragoto]]'' style of acting which would later come to form the core of the aesthetics of [[Edo]] kabuki. [[Ichikawa Danjuro|Ichikawa Danjûrô]] remains the most prestigious name in kabuki today, and the innovations of the first Danjûrô set the stage for the bold makeup, costumes, ''mie'' poses, and movements that have come to so define kabuki. Danjûrô is also, perhaps erroneously, credited with the invention of the ''mawari butai''.

The [[Genroku period]] ([[1688]]-[[1704]]) is generally cited as marking the beginning of kabuki's development into its mature form. While fans would continue to admire actors for their physical features (e.g. beauty, handsomeness, grace) down through the present day, it was in Genroku that acting really began to overtake sexiness as a key characteristic of the art form; in other words, it was in this period that kabuki can really be said to have transformed from a dance revue showing off the actors' physical bodies, into a plot-based, character-based theatre form, albeit still with considerable elements of showing off the actors' skills and abilities.

 

The period saw numerous innovations by some of the most famous and influential figures in early kabuki history, including playwright [[Chikamatsu Monzaemon]] and actor [[Sakata Tojuro I|Sakata Tôjûrô I]] who pioneered the softer ''[[wagoto]]'' style of acting which later grew to form the core of Kamigata (Kyoto-Osaka) kabuki. [[Yoshizawa Ayame I]] is celebrated as a pioneering ''onnagata'', and [[Ichikawa Danjuro I|Ichikawa Danjûrô I]] created the bold ''[[aragoto]]'' style of acting which would later come to form the core of the aesthetics of [[Edo]] kabuki. [[Ichikawa Danjuro|Ichikawa Danjûrô]] remains the most prestigious name in kabuki today, and the innovations of the first Danjûrô set the stage for the bold makeup, costumes, ''mie'' poses, and movements that have come to so define kabuki. Danjûrô is also, perhaps erroneously, credited with the invention of the ''mawari butai''.

Numerous features of kabuki can thus trace their origins to the Genroku period, as can some of the most famous and prominent plays in the repertoire, such as ''[[Shibaraku]]''. By this time, narrative had taken a more central role in kabuki, and plays began to be more fully based around a consistent plot, and dramatic characters, though dance remained strong as well. Kabuki dance by this time had shifted away from the abstract and formal ''mai'' dance form of Noh, and away from the folk ''odori'' traditions,<ref>''Mai'' dances can be quite slow, and center on walking in a circle or square, and performing highly formalized, abstract movements; ''odori'' are considerably more energetic dances, generally performed in groups, either in a circle, or in a line. Tokita. p244.</ref> and had embraced the ''furi'' style of more mimetic dance, in which dancers embody a character, and perform dance motions which resemble or represent the actions of a narrative. Even as plays began to incorporate more dialogue and plot elements, the narrative dance-drama form known as ''[[shosagoto]]'' coalesced and gathered strength as well.

Numerous features of kabuki can thus trace their origins to the Genroku period, as can some of the most famous and prominent plays in the repertoire, such as ''[[Shibaraku]]''. By this time, narrative had taken a more central role in kabuki, and plays began to be more fully based around a consistent plot, and dramatic characters, though dance remained strong as well. Kabuki dance by this time had shifted away from the abstract and formal ''mai'' dance form of Noh, and away from the folk ''odori'' traditions,<ref>''Mai'' dances can be quite slow, and center on walking in a circle or square, and performing highly formalized, abstract movements; ''odori'' are considerably more energetic dances, generally performed in groups, either in a circle, or in a line. Tokita. p244.</ref> and had embraced the ''furi'' style of more mimetic dance, in which dancers embody a character, and perform dance motions which resemble or represent the actions of a narrative. Even as plays began to incorporate more dialogue and plot elements, the narrative dance-drama form known as ''[[shosagoto]]'' coalesced and gathered strength as well.

Meiji, post-war, today, rebuilding of Kabuki-za

Meiji, post-war, today, rebuilding of Kabuki-za

Kabuki began to shift at the beginning of the 20th century from all-day programs to shorter separate afternoon and evening programs showing choice selections from a number of different plays. This remains the standard program today at [[Kabuki-za]] and the other major kabuki theatres across the country, though revivals of full-length plays are occasionally performed; the [[Tokyo National Theatre]], established in 1965, by contrast, makes a policy of hosting performances of full-length plays, as part of a philosophy of cultural preservation and historical authenticity.

Kabuki began to shift at the beginning of the 20th century from all-day programs to shorter separate afternoon and evening programs showing choice selections from a number of different plays. This remains the standard program today at [[Kabuki-za]] and the other major kabuki theaters across the country, though revivals of full-length plays are occasionally performed; the [[Tokyo National Theatre]], established in 1965, by contrast, makes a policy of hosting performances of full-length plays, as part of a philosophy of cultural preservation and historical authenticity.

While still strongly dedicated to tradition as it always has been, kabuki today does not adhere exclusively to a traditional repertoire. Most plays composed in the late 19th and early 20th century and incorporating too much Western/modern influence, especially those with very modern settings and plots, and most especially those born out of the militarist & ultranationalist ideologies of the 1920s-40s, have been excised from the repertoire. However, new plays do continue to be written and performed, albeit rarely, and always with much effort paid to be true to the traditional aesthetics and style of kabuki. ''[[Ukare shinju|Ukare shinjû]]'', a parody of the [[shinju|love suicides]] genre, for example, was pioneered by Nakamura Kanzaburô XVIII (then Kankurô V) in 1997,<ref>''Kabukiza hyaku-ni-jû-nen shigatsu dai-kabuki'' 歌舞伎座百二十年四月大歌舞伎. Tokyo: Shôchiku. April 2008. p75.</ref> but even an avid kabuki fan might have difficulty noticing elements that would set it apart as definitively non-traditional, or of a more modern authorship. It has been added into the repertoire, and has been performed several times since its debut, but even in 2008, more than ten years after the play was added to the repertoire, it was preceded by Kanzaburô himself appearing before the audience and humbly asking their forgiveness for not performing something more traditional, and asking their consideration of this new piece.

While still strongly dedicated to tradition as it always has been, kabuki today does not adhere exclusively to a traditional repertoire. Most plays composed in the late 19th and early 20th century and incorporating too much Western/modern influence, especially those with very modern settings and plots, and most especially those born out of the militarist & ultranationalist ideologies of the 1920s-40s, have been excised from the repertoire. However, new plays do continue to be written and performed, albeit rarely, and always with much effort paid to be true to the traditional aesthetics and style of kabuki. ''[[Ukare shinju|Ukare shinjû]]'', a parody of the love suicides genre, for example, was pioneered by Nakamura Kanzaburô XVIII (then Kankurô V) in 1997,<ref>''Kabukiza hyaku-ni-jû-nen shigatsu dai-kabuki'' 歌舞伎座百二十年四月大歌舞伎. Tokyo: Shôchiku. April 2008. p75.</ref> but even an avid kabuki fan might have difficulty noticing elements that would set it apart as definitively non-traditional, or of a more modern authorship. It has been added into the repertoire, and has been performed several times since its debut, but even in 2008, more than ten years after the play was added to the repertoire, it was preceded by Kanzaburô himself appearing before the audience and humbly asking their forgiveness for not performing something more traditional, and asking their consideration of this new piece.

The tradition of making contemporary references and jokes, and otherwise slightly altering plays in each incarnation (production) of them, also continues to this day. Actors regularly incorporate references to contemporary gags or jokes into traditional plays, and have been known to go as far as to substitute men in NYPD uniforms for the shogun's lawmen in a traditional ''jidaimono'' play; this is seen not as a break with tradition, but as a continuation of the long tradition of keeping plays flexible and current, of improvisation and having fun with the canon, and preventing it from becoming too staid and formulaic.

The tradition of making contemporary references and jokes, and otherwise slightly altering plays in each incarnation (production) of them, also continues to this day. Actors regularly incorporate references to contemporary gags or jokes into traditional plays, and have been known to go as far as to substitute men in NYPD uniforms for the shogun's lawmen in a traditional ''jidaimono'' play; this is seen not as a break with tradition, but as a continuation of the long tradition of keeping plays flexible and current, of improvisation and having fun with the canon, and preventing it from becoming too staid and formulaic.

==References==

==References==

*Alison McQueen Tokita, "Music in kabuki: more than meets the eye." ''The Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music''. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2008. pp229-260.

*Alison McQueen Tokita, "Music in kabuki: more than meets the eye." ''The Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music''. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2008. pp229-260.

*Samuel Leiter (ed.), ''A Kabuki Reader'', M.E. Sharpe (2002).

*Donald Shively, "Bakufu Versus Kabuki," in Samuel Leiter (ed.), ''A Kabuki Reader'', M.E. Sharpe (2002), 33-59.

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