Changes

==Ming China==

==Ming China==

The [[Sinocentric world order]] and system of tributary relations was, in theory, in place from as early as the [[Han Dynasty]] (206 BCE - 220 CE) until the late [[Qing Dynasty]] (1644-1911), but was strongest in the early Ming Dynasty, i.e. from [[1368]] until sometime around 1550. As [[Angela Schottenhammer]] explains, prior to the Ming dynasty, the Sino-centric worldview and tribute system were more a claim than a reality, and after the 1550s or so, Chinese maritime/economic power weakened.<ref>Schottenhammer. pp7-8.</ref>

The [[Sinocentric world order]] and system of tributary relations was, in theory, in place from as early as the [[Han Dynasty]] (206 BCE - 220 CE) until the late [[Qing Dynasty]] (1644-1911), but was strongest in the early Ming Dynasty, i.e. from [[1368]] until sometime around 1550. As [[Angela Schottenhammer]] explains, prior to the Ming dynasty, the Sino-centric worldview and tribute system were more a claim than a reality, and after the 1550s or so, Chinese maritime/economic power weakened.<ref>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 7-8.</ref>

Ming China regarded Korea and Ryûkyû as its first and second most important tributaries, respectively, followed by Japan, Burma, and Annam,<ref>Schottenhammer, Angela. “Empire and Periphery? The Qing Empire’s Relations with Japan and the Ryūkyūs (1644–c. 1800), a Comparison.” ''The Medieval History Journal'' 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2013): 175n97.</ref> and categorized all of its tributary states into six categories:

Ming China regarded Korea and Ryûkyû as its first and second most important tributaries, respectively, followed by Japan, Burma, and Annam,<ref>Schottenhammer, Angela. “Empire and Periphery? The Qing Empire’s Relations with Japan and the Ryūkyūs (1644–c. 1800), a Comparison.” ''The Medieval History Journal'' 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2013): 175n97.</ref> and categorized all of its tributary states into six categories:

*(2) The second category included the remaining Southeast Asian polities, especially island polities such as those in the modern-day Philippines, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka.

*(2) The second category included the remaining Southeast Asian polities, especially island polities such as those in the modern-day Philippines, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka.

*(3) & (4) The third and fourth categories included [[Jurchens]], [[Tatars]], and other tribal peoples to the north.

*(3) & (4) The third and fourth categories included [[Jurchens]], [[Tatars]], and other tribal peoples to the north.

*(5) & (6) The fifth and sixth categories included tribal peoples and other groups to the west.<ref name=schott14>Schottenhammer. p14.</ref>

*(5) & (6) The fifth and sixth categories included tribal peoples and other groups to the west.<ref name=schott14>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 14.</ref>

Tribute missions were permitted on a regular, but limited schedule, thus limiting all official (legal) trade as well. For the most part, Korea and Ryûkyû were permitted to send missions once every two years; at times, for various political reasons, this was changed to once every three years. Similarly, Muromachi Japan was permitted, at times, to send missions only once every ten years. The system was managed by a Maritime Trade Office, or ''[[shibosi]]'' (市舶司); originally there was only one such office, but before long ''shibosi'' offices were established in the major ports of [[Fuzhou]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Ningpo]] and [[Guangzhou]].<ref name=schott14/> In total, tribute missions from Ryûkyû appear in the ''[[Ming shi]]'' (Official History of Ming) 171 times, nearly doubly as often as the 89 missions from Korea, and far outnumbering tribute missions from any other polity.<ref name=kuninda>Gallery labels, "Kuninda - Ryûkyû to Chûgoku no kakehashi," special exhibit, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, Sept 2014.</ref>

Tribute missions were permitted on a regular, but limited schedule, thus limiting all official (legal) trade as well. For the most part, Korea and Ryûkyû were permitted to send missions once every two years; at times, for various political reasons, this was changed to once every three years. Similarly, Muromachi Japan was permitted, at times, to send missions only once every ten years. The system was managed by a Maritime Trade Office, or ''[[shibosi]]'' (市舶司); originally there was only one such office, but before long ''shibosi'' offices were established in the major ports of [[Fuzhou]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Ningpo]] and [[Guangzhou]].<ref name=schott14/> In total, tribute missions from Ryûkyû appear in the ''[[Ming shi]]'' (Official History of Ming) 171 times, nearly doubly as often as the 89 missions from Korea, and far outnumbering tribute missions from any other polity.<ref name=kuninda>Gallery labels, "Kuninda - Ryûkyû to Chûgoku no kakehashi," special exhibit, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, Sept 2014.</ref>

Foreign ships were required to send a certain portion of their cargoes as tribute, and a portion of their personnel as envoys, to the Imperial capital, though the remainder of the cargo could be sold privately, that is, independently, for profit, by the foreigners, or by the Chinese port officials on the foreigners' behalf. The Ming court paid for travel expenses, often providing horses and ships, but limited missions to 150 people.

Foreign ships were required to send a certain portion of their cargoes as tribute, and a portion of their personnel as envoys, to the Imperial capital, though the remainder of the cargo could be sold privately, that is, independently, for profit, by the foreigners, or by the Chinese port officials on the foreigners' behalf. The Ming court paid for travel expenses, often providing horses and ships, but limited missions to 150 people.

Korea generally sent gold, silver, skins (especially leopard and sea otter), brushes, paper, ginseng, and silks, woven mats, and other kinds of textiles. Items such as cattle, horses, cotton, grain, pepper, materials for making weapons and gunpowder (e.g. sulphur), as well as human slaves, young girls, and eunuchs, were often requested by the Ming Court. In return, Korea obtained a variety of goods including silks, jades, medicinal products, musical instruments, books, and [[dragon robe]]s.<ref name=schottenhammer556>Schottenhammer. pp55-56.</ref>

Korea generally sent gold, silver, skins (especially leopard and sea otter), brushes, paper, ginseng, and silks, woven mats, and other kinds of textiles. Items such as cattle, horses, cotton, grain, pepper, materials for making weapons and gunpowder (e.g. sulphur), as well as human slaves, young girls, and eunuchs, were often requested by the Ming Court. In return, Korea obtained a variety of goods including silks, jades, medicinal products, musical instruments, books, and [[dragon robe]]s.<ref name=schottenhammer556>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 55-56.</ref>

Tributary missions typically brought a considerable volume of goods, especially local products, to offer to the Chinese emperor as tribute, receiving a great volume of gifts in return; they were then, typically, in addition, permitted to engage in private trade, both in Beijing, and in other ports along their way home. Both the gifts "bestowed" upon the foreigners in gifts, and the private trade, could be quite lucrative. Private trade conducted in conjunction with a tribute mission often yielded two or three times the normal market price. In this way, tribute trade was able to serve as the only official trade with China. Still, unofficial trade was rampant throughout the period, and at times, the Ming Court even relaxed its policies, in recognition of the great demand for trade. Beginning in [[1509]], the emperor allowed ships from tributary states to trade at Guangzhou, even outside of their designated years. From [[1567]], Chinese merchants engaged in trade in Southeast Asian ports could operate in a particular port in [[Fujian province]] opened that year to such business.<ref>Lloyd Eastman, ''Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China's Social and Economic History, 1550-1949'', Oxford University Press (1988), 123-124.</ref>

Tributary missions typically brought a considerable volume of goods, especially local products, to offer to the Chinese emperor as tribute, receiving a great volume of gifts in return; they were then, typically, in addition, permitted to engage in private trade, both in Beijing, and in other ports along their way home. Both the gifts "bestowed" upon the foreigners in gifts, and the private trade, could be quite lucrative. Private trade conducted in conjunction with a tribute mission often yielded two or three times the normal market price. In this way, tribute trade was able to serve as the only official trade with China. Still, unofficial trade was rampant throughout the period, and at times, the Ming Court even relaxed its policies, in recognition of the great demand for trade. Beginning in [[1509]], the emperor allowed ships from tributary states to trade at Guangzhou, even outside of their designated years. From [[1567]], Chinese merchants engaged in trade in Southeast Asian ports could operate in a particular port in [[Fujian province]] opened that year to such business.<ref>Lloyd Eastman, ''Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Change in China's Social and Economic History, 1550-1949'', Oxford University Press (1988), 123-124.</ref>

==Qing China==

==Qing China==

After the fall of the Ming, the Manchus lost no time in establishing policies and regulations for tributary relations. The Qing Court essentially continued the tributary relations of the Ming period, maintaining or putting into place procedures for receiving tribute ships and storing their cargoes, banning goods of strategic importance from leaving the country, and setting regulations for the size of incoming tribute missions.<ref>Schottenhammer. p26.</ref>

After the fall of the Ming, the Manchus lost no time in establishing policies and regulations for tributary relations. The Qing Court essentially continued the tributary relations of the Ming period, maintaining or putting into place procedures for receiving tribute ships and storing their cargoes, banning goods of strategic importance from leaving the country, and setting regulations for the size of incoming tribute missions.<ref>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 26.</ref>

Qing received tribute from Korea annually, from Ryûkyû once every two years, from Siam every three years, Annam every four years, and from Laos and Burma once in a decade. Though all of these tributary relationships had ''de facto'' ended by the mid-to-late 19th century, an 1899 document still lists all of those polities as tributaries.<ref>Schottenhammer. p31.</ref> Official documents presented to the Qing Court were generally written in Chinese in the tributary country, and then translated into the [[Manchu language]], and presented to the Court in both languages.<ref name=kuninda/>

Qing received tribute from Korea annually, from Ryûkyû once every two years, from Siam every three years, Annam every four years, and from Laos and Burma once in a decade. Though all of these tributary relationships had ''de facto'' ended by the mid-to-late 19th century, an 1899 document still lists all of those polities as tributaries.<ref>Schottenhammer, "East Asian Maritime World," 31.</ref> Official documents presented to the Qing Court were generally written in Chinese in the tributary country, and then translated into the [[Manchu language]], and presented to the Court in both languages.<ref name=kuninda/>

Korea sent at least 435 [[Korean tribute missions to China|missions to Qing China]] between [[1637]] and [[1881]], bringing goods such as deer and leopard skins, ox horns, gold, silver, tea, paper, various types of textiles, and rice, along with goods obtained from Southeast Asia or elsewhere, such as sappanwood, pepper, and swords and knives.<ref name=schottenhammer556/>

Korea sent at least 435 [[Korean tribute missions to China|missions to Qing China]] between [[1637]] and [[1881]], bringing goods such as deer and leopard skins, ox horns, gold, silver, tea, paper, various types of textiles, and rice, along with goods obtained from Southeast Asia or elsewhere, such as sappanwood, pepper, and swords and knives.<ref name=schottenhammer556/>

It was one such tribute ship from the Miyako Islands, on its way back from having delivered tribute at Tomari on Okinawa, that became shipwrecked in [[1871]] on Taiwan, leading to the so-called [[Taiwan Incident of 1871]] in which the majority of the Miyakoan sailors were killed by [[Taiwanese aborigines]], spurring an international incident in which China and Japan nearly came to all-out war over the question of who held responsibility over Taiwan, and over the Ryûkyûs.

It was one such tribute ship from the Miyako Islands, on its way back from having delivered tribute at Tomari on Okinawa, that became shipwrecked in [[1871]] on Taiwan, leading to the so-called [[Taiwan Incident of 1871]] in which the majority of the Miyakoan sailors were killed by [[Taiwanese aborigines]], spurring an international incident in which China and Japan nearly came to all-out war over the question of who held responsibility over Taiwan, and over the Ryûkyûs.

Despite Ryûkyû's tributary relationship with China being a subordinate relationship, Ryukyuans felt strongly about their strong ties to China, and in the 1870s in particular, when the kingdom's links to China, and indeed the kingdom's very existence, were threatened, many royal officials and political activists, including [[Rin Seiko|Rin Seikô]] and others, took action in support of maintaining (or resuming) tributary relations. The final tribute mission was dispatched in [[1875]], and within the same year, Tokyo rebuked [[Ryukyu han|Ryûkyû han]] for doing so, and ended tributary/investiture relations.<ref>Schottenhammer, Angela. “Empire and Periphery? The Qing Empire’s Relations with Japan and the Ryūkyūs (1644–c. 1800), a Comparison.” ''The Medieval History Journal'' 16, no. 1 (April 1, 2013): 175.</ref> Though in the end China took little action to block Japan's overthrow of the Ryûkyû Kingdom and annexation of the islands as [[Okinawa prefecture]], Beijing did issue formal complaints in the late 1870s against Japanese efforts to put an end to the sending of tribute, to no end. The 1875 mission proved to be the last one, and in [[1879]] Japan completed the overthrow of the kingdom, and annexation of its land.

Despite Ryûkyû's tributary relationship with China being a subordinate relationship, Ryukyuans felt strongly about their strong ties to China, and in the 1870s in particular, when the kingdom's links to China, and indeed the kingdom's very existence, were threatened, many royal officials and political activists, including [[Rin Seiko|Rin Seikô]] and others, took action in support of maintaining (or resuming) tributary relations. The final tribute mission was dispatched in [[1875]], and within the same year, Tokyo rebuked [[Ryukyu han|Ryûkyû han]] for doing so, and ended tributary/investiture relations.<ref>Schottenhammer, “Empire and Periphery?,” 175.</ref> Though in the end China took little action to block Japan's overthrow of the Ryûkyû Kingdom and annexation of the islands as [[Okinawa prefecture]], Beijing did issue formal complaints in the late 1870s against Japanese efforts to put an end to the sending of tribute, to no end. The 1875 mission proved to be the last one, and in [[1879]] Japan completed the overthrow of the kingdom, and annexation of its land.

==References==

==References==