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<div>*''Compiled: [[1650]], [[Sho Shoken|Shô Shôken]]''<br />
*''Japanese'': 中山世鑑 ''(chuuzan seikan)''<br />
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The ''Chûzan Seikan'', or "Mirror of [[Chuzan|Chûzan]]," was the first official history of Okinawa to be compiled. It was written in [[1650]], in [[Japanese language|Japanese]], by high-ranking [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryukyuan]] government minister [[Sho Shoken|Shô Shôken]].<br />
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The work consists of five volumes in total. The first volume covers the royal lineage of [[Shunten]], the second the lines of [[Eiso]] and [[Satto]], the third the line of [[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi]], the fourth that of [[Sho En|Shô En]], and the fifth the reign of [[Sho Sei|Shô Sei]]. There is no discussion of the reign of [[Sho Shin|Shô Shin]]; the reason for this is unknown.<br />
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Emulating the political culture of Chinese dynastic histories, the ''Chûzan seikan'' speaks often of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], and represents the final rulers of fallen dynasties (such as [[Sho Toku|Shô Toku]], last ruler of the First Shô Dynasty) as violent and cruel, distracted by dalliances, or otherwise lacking in virtue. However, in many other respects, the ''Chûzan seikan'' emphasizes Ryûkyû's relationship to Japan over that with China. The text describes Okinawans as having come from Japan<ref name=smits>Smits, Gregory. ''Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999. pp51-62.</ref>, and relates a narrative of Okinawan subordinate relations to [[Satsuma province]] going back many centuries, a fiction to which King [[Sho Nei|Shô Nei]] was forced to agree roughly 40 years earlier, following [[Invasion of Ryukyu|Satsuma's invasion of the kingdom]]. This reflects the fact that, unlike some more Sinophilic administrators in the history of the kingdom, Shô Shôken frequently expressed concern with how Ryukyuan practices would look to Satsuma, which he saw as model for policy and practice<ref name=smits/>.<br />
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The text devotes considerable space to elaboration of the story of 12th century samurai [[Minamoto no Tametomo]] being the father of the Okinawan king Shunten, thus linking the Ryukyuan royal family with the Japanese imperial line (via Tametomo, a member of the [[Seiwa Genji]] line of the [[Minamoto clan]], which claimed descent from [[Emperor Seiwa]]), and also with the [[Tokugawa clan]] (who also claimed descent from the Seiwa Genji). Scholars today consider this story and link to the Minamoto a falsehood, but the tale was believed quite widely at the time, appearing in numerous Japanese works on Ryukyuan history, including [[Arai Hakuseki]]'s ''[[Nantoshi|Nantôshi]]''. The ''Chûzan seikan'' is among the earliest works in which this story appears, but the actual origin of the story is unclear.<br />
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Advantageous during the early modern period in representing Ryûkyû in a pro-Japanese light to Japanese official audiences (such as Satsuma and shogunate officials), the ''Chûzan seikan'' was also deployed during the [[Meiji period]] in support of arguments for [[Okinawa prefecture|Okinawa prefecture's]] fundamental belonging to the Empire of Japan.<br />
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In [[1701]]-[[1712]], [[Sai Taku]] produced a [[Chinese language]] history entitled ''[[Chuzan seifu|Chûzan seifu]]'' and based upon the ''Chûzan seikan''; this was later heavily edited by Sai Taku's son [[Sai On]], and served similar political/discursive purposes, but for official Chinese audiences.<br />
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==References==<br />
*"[http://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/storyid-42106-storytopic-121.html Chûzan seikan]," Okinawa Compact Encyclopedia 沖縄コンパクト事典, Ryukyu Shimpo, 1 March 2003.<br />
*Gregory Smits, "Rethinking Ryukyu," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6:1 (2015), 1.<br />
*"[http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/1217404] 1933 Printing of the Chûzan seikan (National Diet Library).<br />
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[[Category:Ryukyu]]<br />
[[Category:Edo Period]]<br />
[[Category:Historical Documents]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Ryukyu&diff=39310Kingdom of Ryukyu2018-07-29T08:08:28Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Notes & References */</p>
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<div>[[File:Shuri-seiden.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The rebuilt Seiden (main hall) of [[Shuri castle]], as it appears today]]<br />
[[File:King Sho En.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A [[ogo-e|posthumous official royal portrait]] of King [[Sho En|Shô En]]]]<br />
*''Existence: [[1429]]-[[1879]]''<br />
*''Territory: most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]]''<br />
*''[[Kokudaka]]: 89,086 (1610);<ref>As of a [[1610]] land survey. By [[1634]], this amount was counted as part of the ''kokudaka'' of Satsuma han.</ref> 94,230 (after 1727)<ref name=kokudaka>Tomiyama Kazuyuki, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” Ishihara Masahide et al (eds.), ''Self-determinable Development of Small Islands'', Singapore: Springer Publishing (2016), 63.; ''Shimazu ke rekidai seido'' (vol. 14, item #803), ''Kagoshima ken shiryô: Satsuma han hôrei shiryô shû 1'', Kagoshima: Reimeikan (2004), 510. While this figure represents the ''kokudaka'' of the islands administered by the kingdom, i.e. those from Okinawa Island in the north to the Sakishimas in the south, the Shimazu and the Tokugawa shogunate officially considered the production of the Amami Islands - administered by Kagoshima but still regarded as the territory of the kingdom - to be included in the kingdom's ''kokudaka'', for a grand total of 123,700 ''koku''. Akamine, 69-70.</ref><br />
*''Capital: [[Shuri]]''<br />
*''Kings: First & Second [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]''<br />
*''Japanese'': 琉球王国 ''(Ryuukyuu-ou-koku)''<br />
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The Kingdom of Ryûkyû encompassed and ruled over most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]], which stretch between [[Kyushu|Kyûshû]] and Taiwan, from [[1429]] to [[1879]]. <br />
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Ruled by the [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]] of kings from [[Shuri Castle]], on the island of [[Okinawa]], the kingdom was formed by the unification in 1419-1429 of the island, which had been previously divided into [[Sanzan period|three kingdoms]]. It was an independent state, though a [[tribute|tributary]] to Ming China, until the [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion of Ryûkyû]] by forces of Japan's [[Satsuma han]]. From then until its dissolution in [[1879]], the kingdom served as a semi-independent vassal state under Satsuma, and continued its tributary relationship with China.<br />
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The kingdom's territory expanded over the course of the 15th-16th centuries, as the islands of the archipelago were absorbed into the kingdom one by one; after 1624, [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and a number of its neighboring islands were annexed by Satsuma han. The Amami Islands today remain part of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]] while the rest of the Ryûkyûs constitute [[Okinawa Prefecture]].<br />
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==History==<br />
===Origins===<br />
Prior to [[1314]] or so, the Ryûkyû Islands were controlled by a myriad of small chiefdoms; those on the main island of Okinawa were loosely united under a "king". [[Tamagusuku]], who ascended to this post in 1314, lacked the charisma, leadership qualities, and skills to maintain this unity, and the island fractured into three polities<ref>For the sake of convenience and simplicity, most sources in English refer to these as "kingdoms" and their leaders as "kings", though most are also keen to point out that the political structures of the time continued to far more closely resemble chiefdoms. Though the Chinese character for "king" (王) is used in both Chinese and Japanese sources of the period, it is perhaps most accurate to not consider these rulers "kings" until sometime around the unification of Okinawa in 1419-1429.</ref>: [[Nanzan]] in the south of the island, [[Hokuzan]] in the north, and [[Chuzan|Chûzan]] in the center.<br />
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Over the course of the next hundred years, the three polities consolidated their power, build a great many fortresses (''[[gusuku]]''), and expanded through trade. Chûzan entered into tributary relations with Ming China in [[1372]], the other two polities following suit within the next decade, and began to receive royal [[investiture]] from China as well. The three polities expanded their territory in this period as well, slowly acquiring the other nearby islands either as tributary states or as outright annexed territories, and entering into diplomatic and trade relations with Japan and Korea, as well as with a number of Southeast Asian polities.<ref name=gunn219>Geoffrey Gunn, ''History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000-1800'', Hong Kong University Press (2011), 219.</ref><br />
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A local lord (''[[anji]]'') by the name of Hashi rose to power at the beginning of the 15th century, and overthrew the king of Chûzan, [[Bunei]], around 1407. Hashi originally set up his father as king, but continued to wield power behind the scenes, succeeding his father in 1422. The two received formal investiture from the Ming Court, and were granted the surname Shô (尚, "Shang" in Chinese); father and son thus became [[Sho Shisho|Shô Shisho]] and [[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi]] respectively, marking the beginning of the first [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]. Under their leadership, Chûzan conquered Hokuzan in 1419 and Nanzan in 1429, uniting the island of Okinawa, establishing the Kingdom of Ryûkyû, and moving the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]].<br />
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===Independence===<br />
[[File:Bridge of Nations Bell.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A replica of the ''Bankoku shinryô no kane'', or [[Bridge of Nations Bell]], hanging at Shuri castle. The inscription speaks of Ryûkyû as a bridge between all nations]]<br />
[[File:Shureimon.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Shureimon gate to Shuri castle, bearing a plaque reading "Nation of Propriety"]]<br />
[[File:Shiseibyo-gate.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The main gate to the [[Shiseibyo|Confucian temple]] in [[Kumemura]]]]<br />
Despite its tiny land area, the kingdom came to play a crucial role in regional trade networks as a transshipping point. Much of the tribute goods paid by the kingdom to China came originally from Southeast Asia. Hundreds of Ryukyuan vessels, many of them acquired from the Ming, but operating on behalf of the Ryukyuan royal government, traversed the seas, making port in China, Korea, Japan, and at least eight different ports across Southeast Asia, engaging not only in trade but also in diplomatic exchanges.<ref>Records show a number of instances of Ryûkyû requesting seagoing vessels from Ming and from Siam, explicitly for the purpose of facilitating maritime trade activities. Some scholars have suggested this indicates that Ryukyuan vessels were themselves not capable of traversing such vast distances safely or effectively. Chan, Ying Kit. “A Bridge between Myriad Lands: The Ryukyu Kingdom and Ming China (1372-1526).” MA Thesis, National University of Singapore, 2010, 58n147, 60. http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/20602.</ref> Goods from Japan consisted primarily of precious metals and objects of fine art; the kingdom acquired primarily medicinal herbs, ceramics, and textiles from Korea and China. These were then exchanged in Luzon, Siam, Java (Sunda), Melaka, Palembang, Sumatra, Pattani, and Annam for a variety of spices, aromatic woods, skins, ivory, and other animal products, and sugar. Ryukyuan ships traveling to Southeast Asia were typically manned by entirely Chinese crews, with Chinese navigators, though they were always captained by native Ryukyuans, with the exception of missions to Java.<ref>Gunn, 220.</ref><br />
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Annam was perhaps the greatest of Ryûkyû's Southeast Asian trading partners, with a greater number of Ryukyuan ships traveling to Annam in the 16th century than to any other destination outside of China. Eleven other destinations also saw more Ryukyuan ships in that period than Japan did.<ref>McNally, 96.</ref> Siam, meanwhile, was the only Southeast Asian polity to which Ryûkyû sold [[sulfur]]. Interactions with Siam began as early as the 1380s, via Chinese intermediaries, but in the 15th century came to be handled more directly by Ryukyuan merchants. With perhaps only one exception, Siamese ships did not travel to Ryûkyû; the trade was conducted entirely on Ryukyuan vessels. Ryûkyû traded with the sultans of Melaka from [[1463]] until [[1511]], when Melaka fell to the Portuguese, and the Ryukyuans diverted their trade activities to Pattani. Records of Ryukyuan activity in Java indicate interactions in [[1430]]-[[1442]], and again in [[1513]]-[[1518]]; unlike in relations with Siam and other regions, in Java and Sumatra local Chinese merchant communities directed the trade with Ryûkyû.<ref>Gunn, 220-221.</ref><br />
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Much of Ryûkyû's trade with Korea in the 15th-16th centuries was conducted by Japanese merchants from [[Hakata]] and [[Sakai]], patronized by various ''daimyô''. Ryukyuan individuals also sometimes traveled themselves to Korea, or elsewhere, aboard these Japanese ships; at times, Japanese ships were able to get better treatment in Korean or other ports if they carried official Ryukyuan envoys. By 1480, however, these Ryukyuan-chartered Japanese trade missions declined significantly, the reputation of their legitimacy having been severely damaged by many Japanese traders falsely claiming to be official representatives of the island kingdom.<ref>Mark McNally, "A King's Legitimacy and a Kingdom's Exceptionality: Ryûkyû's Bankoku Shinryô no Kane of 1458," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6 (2015), 91-92.</ref> Further, after [[1592]], Japanese relations with China and Korea were at a nadir, and so Ryukyuan envoys and trade to Korea traveled via Beijing, and not via Japanese channels.<ref name=gunn219/><br />
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Most sources indicate that, while the majority of the Ryukyuan peasantry were illiterate and led very simple lives, they always had enough to subsist on. The great wealth acquired by the royal government, government officials, aristocrats, and merchants did not spill over into conspicuous prosperity for all, but neither did the government truly oppress or impoverish the peasantry.<br />
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Shô Hashi relocated the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]], nearer to the scholar-bureaucrat center of [[Kumemura]], and the port of [[Naha]], and expanded the ''[[gusuku]]'' (castle) there into a royal palace on the Chinese model. There, he worked to construct a notion of kingship based on the Chinese model, in which the king's rule was seen as legitimate not because of military might, but based on his virtuous character, and on a perception of the king as the benevolent ruler whose virtue united and sustained the kingdom. This discursive project, of constructing in Ryûkyû a Confucian kingdom, was continued by Hashi's successors, and may be said to have reached its full realization under King [[Sho Shin|Shô Shin]], in the first decades of the 16th century.<ref>Chan, 29.</ref><br />
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The bureaucratic and governmental structures of the kingdom, based on those of Chûzan, developed and solidified over the course of the 15th century, following, in many ways, a Chinese model. A complex bureaucracy ran the kingdom, the heads of each branch known collectively as the [[Council of Fifteen]]. The king was of course at the top of the hierarchy, his chief advisor known as the ''[[sessei]]''. After [[1556]], when the mute [[Sho Gen|Shô Gen]] ascended the throne, a council of regents or advisors known as the ''[[Sanshikan]]'' emerged and gradually came to wield significant power, eventually eclipsing the ''sessei''. In these and other ways, the kingdom adopted Confucian & Ming customs, political philosophy, and practices in order to present a discourse of power and legitimacy both to China and other neighbors in the region, and to the Ryukyuan people, through an adoption of the Confucian rhetoric of the benevolent monarch from whom virtue and civilization emanates. Still, the royal court exercised considerable agency in shaping its adoption of Chinese customs and forms as it saw fit, maintaining much indigenous forms and elements as well. While the Chinese system of [[court ranks in China|court ranks]] was adopted, Ryûkyû did so with its own indigenous system of colored robes, hairpins, and [[hachimaki|court caps]] indicating [[Ryukyuan court ranks|court rank]], not adopting the Chinese system entirely. Further, internal government documents were regularly written in ''kana'', in the [[Okinawan language]], not in Chinese; students studying to join the scholar-bureaucracy were educated in Chinese, Japanese, and Okinawan, and in fact from the 17th century onwards, [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] and [[Confucian classics|classic Confucian texts]] were taught largely in Japanese forms, rather than in the original Chinese.<ref>Takatsu Takashi, “Ming Jianyang Prints and the Spread of the Teachings of Zhu Xi to Japan and the Ryukyu Kingdom in the Seventeenth Century,” in Angela Schottenhammer (ed.), ''The East Asian Mediterranean: Maritime Crossroads of Culture'', Harrassowitz Verlag (2008), 263-264.</ref> Chinese ''was'' used in formal communications with Ming (and later Qing) China, but even from quite early on, communications with Japan were written in a Japanese form called ''wayô kanbun'', and not in standard [[classical Chinese]].<ref>Chan, 70.</ref><br />
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The village of Kumemura, a short distance from the capital at Shuri, had been founded in [[1393]] by a number of Chinese scholars, bureaucrats, and craftsmen from Fukien settled there with their families by order of the Ming Court. The town rapidly developed into a center of scholarship and Chinese culture, and came to be something of a training ground for the kingdom's bureaucrats; nearly all of the administrators in the royal government came from Kumemura, and positions were based on showing in royal examinations, rather than purely on birth. A system was also established by which a select few members of the Kumemura community would travel to Fuzhou and Beijing to study. In addition to becoming well-versed in the Chinese classics, and being educated and trained in the ways of a bureaucrat, these students would frequently bring back specific skills or knowledges to be implemented in the kingdom, such as geomancy, navigation, or various craft skills.<br />
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Meanwhile, Japanese Buddhist monks became one of the key avenues by which Japanese culture, including [[tea ceremony]], appreciation for tea wares and other Japanese [[pottery|ceramics]], and Japanese poetry and literary classics, was introduced to the Ryukyuan elites. [[Zen]] was the dominant form of [[Buddhism]] patronized by the royal family since its introduction by the Japanese monk [[Zenkan]] in [[1265]]; [[Shingon]] had also been introduced by a Japanese monk in the late 1360s, and a Chinese investiture envoy, [[Chai Shan]], established another major temple in [[1430]]. However, it was under Shô Taikyû (r. [[1454]]-[[1461]]) that Buddhism truly became firmly established and widespread. Shô Taikyû invited [[Kaiin]], a monk from Kyoto's [[Nanzen-ji]], to come and found a number of new temples, and to oversee the construction of a number of [[temple bells]]. Taikyû did not make Buddhism the state religion, but Zen did continue to enjoy a close relationship with the royal family, and Zen monks from Kongô-ji, Hôon-ji, Tennô-ji, Tenkai-ji, [[Tenryu-ji|Tenryû-j]], and Kenzen-ji came to play a particularly prominent role in not only cultural relations, but also political/diplomatic relations between Ryûkyû and Japanese entities such as the Shimazu clan and the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], while relations with other countries continued to be managed by the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats of Kumemura.<ref>Yokoyama, 38, 54.</ref><br />
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King Shô Shin (r. [[1477]]-[[1526]]) is often said to have ruled over a golden age for the kingdom. He solidified and strengthened the power of the king (and of the central royal government more generally), both practically and ideologically. Areas outside of Shuri had previously been ruled by ''anji'', local/regional rulers akin perhaps to feudal lords, with considerable power and autonomy within their lands. Under Shô Shin's predecessors, and especially under Chûzan prior to the unification of the island, ''anji'' wielded considerable power, occasionally even toppling and replacing kings.<ref>As is believed to have happened at least once in Nanzan, as indicated in the ''Ming Taizong shilu''. Chan, 25-26.</ref> The ''anji'' were not fully secure in their power, however, as local elites beneath them could also overthrow their ''anji'' when they perceived him to be politically or spiritually weak; priestesses also wielded considerable local political power.<ref>Chan, 25-26.</ref><br />
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Shô Shin addressed these competing powers by forcing the ''anji'' to reside in Shuri, transforming them into an aristocratic-bureaucrat class, and reorganizing their lands into ''[[magiri]]'' (districts)<ref>Though this term may have previously existed, it now became a more formalized unit of political geography as delineated by Shuri, and governed by those appointed from Shuri.</ref>. Each ''magiri'' consisted of a number of villages known either as ''mura'' or ''shima''; all together, the ''magiri'' comprised the "rural" or "provincial" portion of the kingdom, ''inaka no hô'' in modern Japanese, in contrast to Shuri, Kume, [[Tomari]], and Naha, the four "towns" (''machi'') which comprised the "urban" or "metropolitan" areas of the kingdom.<ref name=nahacity>Gallery labels, Naha City Museum of History.</ref> Officials not of an ''anji'' ("warlord") background were appointed by the royal court to govern these districts; thus, the power of the ''anji'' to act as independent feudal states was removed, and put into the hands of administrators who were reliant on the royal court for the ability to continue to hold that post. By the end of Shô Shin's reign, all military forces in the kingdom were under his command, rather than under the command of individual regional lords; regional forces were now known as ''magiri gun'', rather than ''anji gun'', associating them with the districts, and not with the regional lords. Shô Shin also expanded the reach of the kingdom by sending military forces to conquer or subjugate other islands, sometimes coming into conflict with Japanese forces from [[Satsuma province]] seeking to expand their influence south into the Ryukyus.<ref name=pacifism>Gregory Smits. "[http://www.japanfocus.org/-Gregory-Smits/3409 Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism]." ''The Asia-Pacific Journal'' 37-3-10 (September 13, 2010).</ref> <br />
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Shô Shin and his predecessors also worked to consolidate royal power, and weaken the threat of rivalry from the ''anji'', by developing royal monopolies on maritime trade. They acquired oceangoing vessels from the Ming, monopolized [[lacquerware]] production, and maintained royal sources of various other goods, including [[Ryukyuan horses|horses]] and [[sulphur]];<ref>Chan, 58.</ref> much later, in the 1680s, the royal government ordered all [[Ryukyuan pottery|potters]] in the kingdom to relocate to the [[Tsuboya pottery|Tsuboya]] neighborhood of Naha, thus solidifying a royal monopoly on pottery as well.<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum.; Gallery labels, "The Tsuboya-yaki region" and "Okinawan pottery," Gallery 4: Minzoku, National Museum of Japanese History.</ref><br />
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Shô Shin also addressed the power of the priestesses by establishing a new religious hierarchy, with his sister [[Utuchitunumuigani]] as the first ''[[kikoe-ogimi|kikôe-ôgimi]]'', spiritual protector of the king and kingdom, and head of a hierarchy overseeing all ''[[noro]]'' and ''[[yuta]]'' priestesses in the kingdom. Though quite powerful still, the priestess establishment was now contained within the kingdom's institutions, and was less of a separate, independent, autonomous, power unto itself.<br />
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Beginning in the 15th century, and continuing well into the 16th, the kingdom expanded its control over other islands in the Ryûkyû chain, both to the north and to the south. King [[Sho Toku|Shô Toku]] personally led an invasion force to [[Kikai-jima]] in [[1466]], and forces from the kingdom were dispatched to [[Kumejima]] in [[1506]]. Meanwhile, in 1500, [[Oyake Akahachi]], the dominant power on [[Ishigaki Island]], rose up in rebellion against the Shuri government, refusing to pay taxes or [[tribute]] to Shuri, and also making efforts to extend his own power over other nearby islands; Shuri's successful suppression of this rebellion, with the aid of [[Nakasone Toyomiya]] of [[Hateruma Island]] and other local elites, was followed immediately by Shuri appointing local "chiefs" or "heads" (''kashira''), many of them already elites native to the [[Miyako Islands|Miyako]] or [[Yaeyama Islands]], as official administrators recognized by, and in service to, the kingdom. A system of high priestesses, called ''[[oamu]]'', were also dispatched to the various southern islands. Meanwhile, the kingdom made efforts to expand to the north, where it encountered considerably greater resistance. Battles between the kingdom's forces and local resistance on [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and other parts of the [[Amami Islands]] continued well into the 1550s and 1560s. Ryukyuan forces also clashed with samurai forces from southern Kyushu, who were pushing southward. The Shimazu clan attacked Amami Ôshima in 1571, the same year as the island finally formally submitted to Shuri's authority, as part of an ultimately abortive attempt to conquer the entire kingdom. The furthest north Ryukyuan forces ever managed to attain territory was on [[Gajashima]], one of the [[Tokara Islands]] to the north of Amami. These expansionist efforts were aimed chiefly at consolidating power, and securing access to trade and resources. The kingdom made local elites dependent on Shuri for their legitimacy and authority, and required a certain amount of tax or tribute payments, along with certain other forms of service, but otherwise gave the Miyakos and Yaeyamas, as well as the Amami Islands, considerable leeway in managing their own affairs and maintaining their own cultures.<ref>Smits, "Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism"; Smits, "Rethinking Ryukyu," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6:1 (2015), 7.</ref><br />
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The kingdom's booming trade declined around the 1570s, as the seas came to be dominated by other powers. Spanish and Portuguese galleons arrived around the mid-16th century, followed by the agents of the [[British East India Company|English]] and [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] [[East India Company|East India Companies]] at the beginning of the 17th. Meanwhile, Ming China lifted its bans on Chinese trade with, and in, Southeast Asia, in [[1567]], and Japan under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] began to engage in licensed trade under the ''[[shuinsen]]'' system after around [[1582]]. The dispatch of Ryukyuan trading ships to Siam in [[1570]] was to be the last act of direct Ryukyuan involvement in maritime trade in Southeast Asia.<ref>''Ryûkyû ôchô no bi'' 琉球王朝の美. Hikone Castle Museum 彦根城博物館. Hikone, 1993. p75.</ref><br />
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The total population of the kingdom at this time stood around 100,000.<ref>McNally, 99.</ref><br />
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===Invasion and Vassalage===<br />
Around 1590, the royal government was ordered by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, through agents of the [[Shimazu family]] of Satsuma, to provide troops, weapons, and other munitions to aid in his planned [[Korean invasions|invasions of Korea]]. King [[Sho Nei|Shô Nei]] deferred, and went beyond that, informing the Ming Court of Hideyoshi's plans by way of a letter from [[Jana ueekata]] in [[1591]],<ref>Gallery labels, "Kuninda - Ryûkyû to Chûgoku no kakehashi," special exhibit, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, Sept 2014.</ref> but ultimately sent a little over half the supplies the Shimazu demanded, by way of protecting the kingdom from violent repercussions.<ref>Akamine, 60.</ref> Still, this was but one in a series of instances in which the kingdom refused or ignored requests or demands from the Shimazu and Hideyoshi, or was otherwise less than fully cooperative in the 1570s-1600s, inspired perhaps in part by a fear of the increased threat of Ryukyuan ships being attacked by pirates.<ref>Kuroshima Satoru 黒島敏, ''Ryûkyû ôkoku to Sengoku daimyô'' 琉球王国と戦国大名, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (2016), 22.</ref> Still, it was in connection with the fact that the Shimazu communicated with Ryûkyû, and demonstrated some sort of special relationship, that Toyotomi Hideyoshi formally recognized Ryûkyû in [[1592]] as having some position within the feudal order, under Satsuma. Some scholars point to this as the origin, or otherwise a key element, of Satsuma's claims to authority over Ryûkyû.<ref>Akamine, 59-61.</ref><br />
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Hideyoshi died in 1598, and was replaced as secular, martial, ruler of Japan a few years later by [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]]. Shô Nei ignored demands that he formally recognize the new [[Tokugawa shogunate]], and that his kingdom serve as intermediary to help the Tokugawa (re)establish formal relations with the Ming. In 1600, the shogunate returned a number of Ryukyuan castaways from [[Date clan]] territory in [[Tohoku region|Tôhoku]], and in 1605 the shogunate again returned a number of castaways, and much of their cargo, albeit while confiscating a portion of the cargo. Still, the Ryukyuan court issued no formal expression or mission of gratitude.<ref>Takara Kurayoshi 高良倉吉 and Tomiyama Kazuyuki 豊見山和行, ''Ryûkyû / Okinawa to kaijô no michi'' 琉球・沖縄と海上の道, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (2005), 82.</ref><br />
<br />
Citing these incidents, and a broader narrative of Ryukyuan failure to pay proper respects,<ref>The term employed by Takara Kurayoshi and Tomiyama Kazuyuki is ''heimon'' 聘問, meaning to visit someone & bring gifts in order to pay respects. Takara and Tomiyama, 82.</ref> the Shimazu house then requested permission from Tokugawa Ieyasu to launch a punitive mission. Permission was granted in 1606, and the [[invasion of Ryukyu]] was undertaken in [[1609]]. After a few battles on smaller outlying islands, the samurai forces seized Shuri Castle and took Shô Nei, along with a number of his chief officials, captive. All were brought to Japan, where they met with Ieyasu and his son, the reigning [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Hidetada]], and were forced to submit to a number of demands and conditions. The kingdom became a vassal state under the Shimazu, and was forced to pay taxes to Satsuma on a regular basis, as well as sending regular missions to Kagoshima, among several other obligations. The crown prince of the kingdom was to visit Kagoshima each year to formally reenact rituals of subordination or allegiance; envoys also traveled to Kagoshima on a number of other occasions, including as a "New Year's mission" (''nentôshi'') which included a rotation of Ryukyuan officials resident in the castle-town, and on special occasions such as the birth, marriage, succession, or death of a Shimazu lord.<ref name=tomi63/> A land survey conducted in 1610-1611 determined the ''[[kokudaka]]'' of the kingdom to be 89,086 ''[[koku]]'', a number which was revised upwards to just over 94,230 ''koku'' in [[1727]],<ref name=kokudaka/> of which the kingdom was permitted to keep 50,000 ''koku''.<ref name=akamine68>Akamine, 68.</ref> Based on this assessment, the kingdom was obliged to pay a certain amount of regular annual tax (''shinobose mai'') to Satsuma; originally paid in kind (i.e. in various products/commodities, mainly [[Ryukyuan textiles|textiles]]), this tax obligation was shifted to [[silver]], and then to rice by [[1620]]. The amount varied until [[1660]], at which time it became roughly stable; around [[1870]] the kingdom was paying just over 7,600 ''koku'' in annual tax, plus an additional 1,000 ''koku'' in supplemental tax.<ref name=tomi63>One year later, in [[1871]], following the [[abolition of the han]], Satsuma han was abolished but the kingdom was still obliged to pay tax to [[Kagoshima prefecture]], in the amount of 11,777 ''koku'' (including transportation costs, and with some 970,000 ''[[Japanese Measurements|kin]]'' of [[sugar]] substituted for 3,680 ''koku'' of rice. Tomiyama, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” 63.</ref> From [[1636]] onwards,<ref>Tomiyama, "Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy," 56.</ref> the kingdom was also obligated to provide Satsuma each year with a ''Kirishitan shûmon aratamechô'', a register of religious affiliation of everyone living in the kingdom, to help ensure there were no [[Christianity|Christians]],<ref>People were not required to register with a Buddhist temple, however, as they were in Japan.</ref> and to organize all the kingdom's subjects into ''[[goningumi]]'' - groups of five households which would be responsible for enforcing one another's lawful behavior. Satsuma was also charged with maintaining a coast guard which would prevent foreigners (specifically, Westerners and especially Christian missionaries) from entering Ryûkyû.<ref>This was seen as a kind of "house obligation" (''[[ieyaku]]'') of maritime defense service, of the same category as [[Saga han|Saga]] and [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka domains']] obligations to guard the port of [[Nagasaki]]. Satsuma and [[Tsushima han]] had served similar functions during the [[Muromachi period]] as well, guarding against events in Korea or Ryûkyû which might threaten Japan. Akamine, 66-67, 73.</ref> To further guard against foreigners entering the kingdom, a system of signal fires called ''fiitatimoo'' was established, along with a network of swift boats called ''tobifune'' in Japanese, which could inform Okinawa of any sightings or shipwrecks in the outer islands.<ref name=akamine68/> <br />
<br />
The king was restored to his castle and his kingdom in [[1611]], and was returned to power, though only within strict limits set by the Shimazu. In addition, while the kingdom retained the Ryukyus from Okinawa south (to the [[Sakishima Islands]] and [[Yonaguni]]), the [[Amami Islands]] and all other islands in the chain north of Okinawa Island proper were placed under the direct administration of Satsuma, though Satsuma and the shogunate both continued, through the end of the Edo period, to consider those islands part of the territory of the kingdom.<ref>Akamine, 69-70.</ref> A vassal state, Ryukyu was not considered an integral part of Japan until it was formally annexed as Okinawa Prefecture in 1879; while the provinces of Japan were regarded as ''takoku'' (他国, "other lands"), Ryukyu was considered ''ikoku'' (異国, "foreign lands"), along with China, Korea, Holland, and the rest of the world. However, ''[[Nanto zatsuwa|Nantô zatsuwa]]'', a Japanese text published in the 1850s, reveals that Ryukyuan people continued to travel between Okinawa and Amami, and to engage directly in trade in pottery, marine goods, and other products, despite the ostensible "national" boundaries (i.e. with travel to Amami, as part of Satsuma's territory, now being "foreign" travel and therefore theoretically subject to more strict control).<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, August 2013.</ref><br />
<br />
The king remained on his throne, and the royal court continued on much as it had, both in terms of political and administrative activities, and in terms of court rituals. Though Satsuma initially imposed stronger and more direct interference into Ryûkyû's governance, by the 1620s it began to loosen its involvement, and allowed Ryûkyû increased autonomy.<ref>Akamine, 79.</ref> The [[scholar-aristocracy of Ryukyu|scholar-aristocracy of Ryûkyû]] remained intact through the Satsuma invasion, continuing to pass down ranks and titles, and to occupy government posts, administering the kingdom in much the same fashion as they had previously. Practices and processes evolved and changed over the course of the early modern period, with a few developments in the 17th century having particularly significant impacts, but these were in some respects more natural developments, and not something that happened suddenly in connection with the Satsuma invasion. The aristocracy was divided more starkly from the commoners/villagers shortly after the invasion, and this was compounded, or solidified, by the implementation in [[1689]] of a system of family genealogies known as ''[[kafu]]'' or ''keizu''. Aristocratic families maintained books recording their family's aristocratic lineage, with another copy being kept by the court. Those who had such records of their lineage were known as ''keimochi'' ("possessing genealogy") and were the aristocracy, while those who lacked such records were ''mukei'' ("lacking genealogy"), and were commoners. Still, not all commoners were villagers or "peasants" (J: ''hyakushô''); many were "town commoners" (J: ''machi hyakushô''), and by the end of the early modern period, some town commoners had been able to purchase aristocratic status, and to begin new lineages.<ref name=nahacity/><br />
<br />
For the remainder of Japan's [[Edo period]] after the 1609 invasion, the kingdom served two masters, ostensibly independent, though a vassal to Satsuma and a tributary to China. As formal relations between Japan and China were severed, extensive efforts were made to hide Japan's control or influence over Ryukyu from the Chinese Court. If Beijing believed Ryukyu to be a part of Japan, it would have likely severed ties with Ryukyu as well, denying the kingdom and the shogunate not only a source of income and foreign goods through trade, but also a source of intelligence on events in the outside world, particularly China. Foreign trade, along with tributary missions and student exchange to China continued throughout this period, though overseen by Japanese authorities, and controlled so as to best benefit Satsuma and the shogunate, not the kingdom itself. Ryukyuans were forbidden from speaking Japanese, dressing in Japanese fashion, or otherwise revealing the Japanese influence upon them; the very few who were allowed to go abroad were to speak Chinese and to espouse a combination of native Ryukyuan and Chinese culture. This was not only policy for official envoys and official communications, but was circulated throughout the kingdom, instructing commoners and villagers (peasants) similarly, that if they were to be shipwrecked or castaway in China, for example, they should not speak of relations with Japan, or reveal their own familiarity with Japanese language or culture.<ref>[[Watanabe Miki]], "Ryûkyû kara mita Shinchô" 琉球から見た清朝, in Okada Hidehiro (ed.), ''Shinchô to ha nani ka'' 清朝とは何か, Fujiwara Shoten (2009), 257.</ref> Great efforts were made whenever Chinese envoys came to Ryûkyû to hide signs of Japanese influence from view, and a fiction was maintained that any signs of Japanese influence remaining were due to Ryukyuan trade and contact with the nearby [[Tokara Islands|Takarajima]], and not with mainland Japan.<ref>Matsuda Mitsugu, The Government of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, 1609-1872, Yui Publishing (2001), 60n34.</ref><br />
<br />
The kingdom became a valuable source of sugar, Chinese luxury goods, and certain other goods and commodities to Japan; Satsuma imported these goods, or claimed them as tax payments, and then sold them through [[goyo shonin|merchants officially associated with the domain]] in [[Kyoto]]. However, the kingdom quickly became dependent on Satsuma for silver, copper, tin, and various other goods and commodities, both for its own use, and for use as tribute goods to send to China. Sugar came to be used as one of the chief forms of collateral for such loans.<ref>Akamine, 74-75.</ref><br />
<br />
The kingdom became in various ways a tool for both the Shimazu and the shogunate, not only for purely economic benefit, but also to political ends. Ryukyuan students and embassies to Beijing provided unparalleled intelligence on Chinese matters which could not be gained from Korea or from merchants at [[Nagasaki]], who largely knew only of coastal and maritime matters. Tributary missions from Ryukyu to [[Edo]] were accompanied by great pomp and circumstance, and considerable entourages, though subsumed within the much larger Shimazu party making its obligatory ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' journey to the capital. The enforced exoticism of the Ryukyuan embassies reinforced for the shogunate and the Shimazu family both the notion that an entire foreign kingdom submitted to their authority. The shogunate made use of this to consolidate perceptions of the legitimacy of its authority, while the Shimazu used it as leverage to gain higher [[court rank]] and to negotiate for the bending of laws and taxation.<br />
<br />
Still, despite the overlordship of the Shimazu, the royal government enjoyed some flexibility in instituting domestic polities and reforms. Two governmental officials are of particular significance. [[Sho Shoken|Shô Shôken]], ''sessei'' from 1666-1673, wrote the first history of Ryukyu and helped institute a number of key reforms. He cut down on royal and aristocrati extravagance, in order to streamline expenses and ensure greater prosperity for the kingdom. He also suppressed the political influence and cultural importance of the [[yuta|priestesses]] of the native religion and cut down on royal involvement in many traditional rituals. This served to not only cut down on extravagance, but also was intended to help suppress elements of Ryukyuan culture which could be seen as backwards by China and Japan. [[Sai On]], royal regent roughly a century later, in the 1750s, continued and re-enacted many of Shô Shôken's policies, and went further, making considerable reforms to the kingdom's domestic economy, particularly in agriculture and forestry. His reforms helped the kingdom recover from a series of fires, famines, and other difficulties.<br />
<br />
===Dissolution===<br />
[[Image:Meiji-naminoue.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Statue of Emperor Meiji at [[Naminoue Shrine]] in [[Okinawa]], identified as ''kokka'', or, "The State."]]<br />
::''Main article: [[Ryukyu shobun]]''<br />
Conditions changed dramatically for the kingdom in the 1850s, as they did for Japan as well. Commodore [[Matthew Perry]] was but one of a number of Westerners who made landfall in the Ryukyus around this time, seeking trade and diplomatic relations. Perry in fact signed treaties with the royal government in Ryukyu before ever traveling to Japan.<br />
<br />
The years following the [[1868]] [[Meiji Restoration]] brought drastic changes within Japan, and for the kingdom in turn. The kingdom was briefly transformed into "Okinawa [[han]]", before the ''han'' were [[abolition of the han|abolished]] entirely in [[1871]]. The dissolution of Satsuma han brought the end of Ryukyu's vassal relationship. The kingdom itself was dissolved eight years later, in [[1879]], "Okinawa han" becoming Okinawa Prefecture and the royal family being incorporated into the new Western-style Japanese [[kazoku|aristocracy]]. [[Sho Tai|Shô Tai]], the last king of Ryukyu, was brought to [[Tokyo]] from Shuri, along with his family, and made a Marquis. The vast cultural, educational, and social changes which swept Japan in the [[Meiji period]] came to Okinawa later and more slowly. By the turn of the 20th century, however, assimilation efforts were well underway, aimed at transforming Okinawa, and its inhabitants, into part of a single homogeneous Japanese nation.<br />
<br />
==List of Kings of Ryûkyû==<br />
<br />
In China, in the case of natural succession, it was usual to consider a ruler's reign as starting the year after the death or resignation of his predecessor. This way of dating was often used in the traditional histories of Ryukyu. <ref>For instance, the [[Chuzan seikan]] 中山世鑑 of 1650 gives the accession year 御即位 of Shô Hashi as 1422, the year after his father's death. Hashi died in the "18th year of his reign" in 1439, and his son's accession year was 1440.</ref> The list below, based on Matayoshi (1988), follows this convention, which is the one generally, though not universally, used.<br />
<br />
For [[Year dates|dating years]], records from the kingdom period normally use Chinese eras, though in some particular cases Japanese eras, together with the [[sexagenary cycle]], though in private records the cycle alone might be used. Years were not dated by the regnal years of kings. However, modern Okinawan historians often use regnal years in their writing, usually using the convention above. So the year Shô Hashi 1 usually indicates 1422, and Shô Chû 1 usually indicates 1440.<br />
<br />
<br />
#[[Sho Shisho|Shô Shishô (尚思紹) ]] (r.[[1406]]–[[1421]])<br />
#[[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi (尚巴志) ]] (r.[[1422]]–[[1439]])<br />
#[[Sho Chu|Shô Chû (尚忠) ]] (r.[[1440]]–[[1444]])<br />
#[[Sho Shitatsu|Shô Shitatsu (尚思達) ]] (r.[[1445]]–[[1449]])<br />
#[[Sho Kinpuku|Shô Kinpuku (尚金福) ]] (r.[[1450]]–[[1453]])<br />
#[[Sho Taikyu|Shô Taikyû (尚泰久) ]] (r.[[1454]]–[[1460]])<br />
#[[Sho Toku|Shô Toku (尚徳) ]] (r.[[1461]]–[[1469]])<br />
#[[Sho En|Shô En (尚円) ]] (r.[[1470]]–[[1476]])<br />
#[[Sho Seni|Shô Sen'i (尚宣威) ]] (r.[[1477]])<br />
#[[Sho Shin|Shô Shin (尚真) ]] (r.[[1477]]–[[1526]])<br />
#[[Sho Sei (尚清)|Shô Sei (尚清) ]] (r.[[1527]]–[[1555]])<br />
#[[Sho Gen|Shô Gen (尚元) ]] (r.[[1556]]–[[1572]])<br />
#[[Sho Ei|Shô Ei (尚永) ]] (r.[[1573]]–[[1588]])<br />
#[[Sho Nei|Shô Nei (尚寧) ]] (r.[[1589]]–[[1620]])<br />
#[[Sho Ho|Shô Hô (尚豊) ]] (r.[[1621]]–[[1640]])<br />
#[[Sho Ken|Shô Ken (尚賢) ]] (r.[[1641]]–[[1647]])<br />
#[[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu (尚質) ]] (r.[[1648]]–[[1668]])<br />
#[[Sho Tei|Shô Tei (尚貞) ]] (r.[[1669]]–[[1709]])<br />
#[[Sho Eki|Shô Eki (尚益) ]] (r.[[1710]]–[[1712]])<br />
#[[Sho Kei|Shô Kei (尚敬) ]] (r.[[1713]]–[[1751]])<br />
#[[Sho Boku|Shô Boku (尚穆) ]] (r.[[1752]]–[[1794]])<br />
#[[Sho On|Shô On (尚温) ]] (r.[[1795]]–[[1802]])<br />
#[[Sho Sei (尚成)|Shô Sei (尚成) ]] (r.[[1803]])<br />
#[[Sho Ko (尚灝)|Shô Kô (尚灝) ]] (r.[[1804]]–[[1834]])<br />
#[[Sho Iku|Shô Iku (尚育) ]] (r.[[1835]]–[[1847]])<br />
#[[Sho Tai|Shô Tai (尚泰) ]] (r.[[1848]]–[[1872]])<br />
<br />
==Notes & References==<br />
*[[Hamashita Takeshi|Hamashita, Takeshi]]. 沖縄入門 (''Okinawa nyuumon''). Tokyo: Chikumashobou (筑摩書房), 2000.<br />
*[[George Kerr|Kerr, George]]. ''Okinawa: the History of an Island People.'' (revised ed.) Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2000. <br />
*[[Matayoshi Shinzo]]又吉真三, ed. 琉球歴史総合年表 (''Ryûkyû Rekishi Sôgô Nenpyô''). Naha Shuppansha, 1988.<br />
<br />
*[[Gregory Smits|Smits, Gregory]]. ''Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999.<br />
*Yokoyama Manabu 横山学, ''Ryûkyû koku shisetsu torai no kenkyû'' 琉球国使節渡来の研究, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (1987).<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Government of the Ryukyu Kingdom|Government of the Ryûkyû Kingdom]]<br />
*[[Ryukyuan court ranks]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ryukyu|*]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Ryukyu&diff=39309Kingdom of Ryukyu2018-07-29T08:02:33Z<p>Bethetsu: /* List of Kings of Ryûkyû */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Shuri-seiden.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The rebuilt Seiden (main hall) of [[Shuri castle]], as it appears today]]<br />
[[File:King Sho En.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A [[ogo-e|posthumous official royal portrait]] of King [[Sho En|Shô En]]]]<br />
*''Existence: [[1429]]-[[1879]]''<br />
*''Territory: most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]]''<br />
*''[[Kokudaka]]: 89,086 (1610);<ref>As of a [[1610]] land survey. By [[1634]], this amount was counted as part of the ''kokudaka'' of Satsuma han.</ref> 94,230 (after 1727)<ref name=kokudaka>Tomiyama Kazuyuki, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” Ishihara Masahide et al (eds.), ''Self-determinable Development of Small Islands'', Singapore: Springer Publishing (2016), 63.; ''Shimazu ke rekidai seido'' (vol. 14, item #803), ''Kagoshima ken shiryô: Satsuma han hôrei shiryô shû 1'', Kagoshima: Reimeikan (2004), 510. While this figure represents the ''kokudaka'' of the islands administered by the kingdom, i.e. those from Okinawa Island in the north to the Sakishimas in the south, the Shimazu and the Tokugawa shogunate officially considered the production of the Amami Islands - administered by Kagoshima but still regarded as the territory of the kingdom - to be included in the kingdom's ''kokudaka'', for a grand total of 123,700 ''koku''. Akamine, 69-70.</ref><br />
*''Capital: [[Shuri]]''<br />
*''Kings: First & Second [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]''<br />
*''Japanese'': 琉球王国 ''(Ryuukyuu-ou-koku)''<br />
<br />
The Kingdom of Ryûkyû encompassed and ruled over most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]], which stretch between [[Kyushu|Kyûshû]] and Taiwan, from [[1429]] to [[1879]]. <br />
<br />
Ruled by the [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]] of kings from [[Shuri Castle]], on the island of [[Okinawa]], the kingdom was formed by the unification in 1419-1429 of the island, which had been previously divided into [[Sanzan period|three kingdoms]]. It was an independent state, though a [[tribute|tributary]] to Ming China, until the [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion of Ryûkyû]] by forces of Japan's [[Satsuma han]]. From then until its dissolution in [[1879]], the kingdom served as a semi-independent vassal state under Satsuma, and continued its tributary relationship with China.<br />
<br />
The kingdom's territory expanded over the course of the 15th-16th centuries, as the islands of the archipelago were absorbed into the kingdom one by one; after 1624, [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and a number of its neighboring islands were annexed by Satsuma han. The Amami Islands today remain part of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]] while the rest of the Ryûkyûs constitute [[Okinawa Prefecture]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Origins===<br />
Prior to [[1314]] or so, the Ryûkyû Islands were controlled by a myriad of small chiefdoms; those on the main island of Okinawa were loosely united under a "king". [[Tamagusuku]], who ascended to this post in 1314, lacked the charisma, leadership qualities, and skills to maintain this unity, and the island fractured into three polities<ref>For the sake of convenience and simplicity, most sources in English refer to these as "kingdoms" and their leaders as "kings", though most are also keen to point out that the political structures of the time continued to far more closely resemble chiefdoms. Though the Chinese character for "king" (王) is used in both Chinese and Japanese sources of the period, it is perhaps most accurate to not consider these rulers "kings" until sometime around the unification of Okinawa in 1419-1429.</ref>: [[Nanzan]] in the south of the island, [[Hokuzan]] in the north, and [[Chuzan|Chûzan]] in the center.<br />
<br />
Over the course of the next hundred years, the three polities consolidated their power, build a great many fortresses (''[[gusuku]]''), and expanded through trade. Chûzan entered into tributary relations with Ming China in [[1372]], the other two polities following suit within the next decade, and began to receive royal [[investiture]] from China as well. The three polities expanded their territory in this period as well, slowly acquiring the other nearby islands either as tributary states or as outright annexed territories, and entering into diplomatic and trade relations with Japan and Korea, as well as with a number of Southeast Asian polities.<ref name=gunn219>Geoffrey Gunn, ''History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000-1800'', Hong Kong University Press (2011), 219.</ref><br />
<br />
A local lord (''[[anji]]'') by the name of Hashi rose to power at the beginning of the 15th century, and overthrew the king of Chûzan, [[Bunei]], around 1407. Hashi originally set up his father as king, but continued to wield power behind the scenes, succeeding his father in 1422. The two received formal investiture from the Ming Court, and were granted the surname Shô (尚, "Shang" in Chinese); father and son thus became [[Sho Shisho|Shô Shisho]] and [[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi]] respectively, marking the beginning of the first [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]. Under their leadership, Chûzan conquered Hokuzan in 1419 and Nanzan in 1429, uniting the island of Okinawa, establishing the Kingdom of Ryûkyû, and moving the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]].<br />
<br />
===Independence===<br />
[[File:Bridge of Nations Bell.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A replica of the ''Bankoku shinryô no kane'', or [[Bridge of Nations Bell]], hanging at Shuri castle. The inscription speaks of Ryûkyû as a bridge between all nations]]<br />
[[File:Shureimon.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Shureimon gate to Shuri castle, bearing a plaque reading "Nation of Propriety"]]<br />
[[File:Shiseibyo-gate.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The main gate to the [[Shiseibyo|Confucian temple]] in [[Kumemura]]]]<br />
Despite its tiny land area, the kingdom came to play a crucial role in regional trade networks as a transshipping point. Much of the tribute goods paid by the kingdom to China came originally from Southeast Asia. Hundreds of Ryukyuan vessels, many of them acquired from the Ming, but operating on behalf of the Ryukyuan royal government, traversed the seas, making port in China, Korea, Japan, and at least eight different ports across Southeast Asia, engaging not only in trade but also in diplomatic exchanges.<ref>Records show a number of instances of Ryûkyû requesting seagoing vessels from Ming and from Siam, explicitly for the purpose of facilitating maritime trade activities. Some scholars have suggested this indicates that Ryukyuan vessels were themselves not capable of traversing such vast distances safely or effectively. Chan, Ying Kit. “A Bridge between Myriad Lands: The Ryukyu Kingdom and Ming China (1372-1526).” MA Thesis, National University of Singapore, 2010, 58n147, 60. http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/20602.</ref> Goods from Japan consisted primarily of precious metals and objects of fine art; the kingdom acquired primarily medicinal herbs, ceramics, and textiles from Korea and China. These were then exchanged in Luzon, Siam, Java (Sunda), Melaka, Palembang, Sumatra, Pattani, and Annam for a variety of spices, aromatic woods, skins, ivory, and other animal products, and sugar. Ryukyuan ships traveling to Southeast Asia were typically manned by entirely Chinese crews, with Chinese navigators, though they were always captained by native Ryukyuans, with the exception of missions to Java.<ref>Gunn, 220.</ref><br />
<br />
Annam was perhaps the greatest of Ryûkyû's Southeast Asian trading partners, with a greater number of Ryukyuan ships traveling to Annam in the 16th century than to any other destination outside of China. Eleven other destinations also saw more Ryukyuan ships in that period than Japan did.<ref>McNally, 96.</ref> Siam, meanwhile, was the only Southeast Asian polity to which Ryûkyû sold [[sulfur]]. Interactions with Siam began as early as the 1380s, via Chinese intermediaries, but in the 15th century came to be handled more directly by Ryukyuan merchants. With perhaps only one exception, Siamese ships did not travel to Ryûkyû; the trade was conducted entirely on Ryukyuan vessels. Ryûkyû traded with the sultans of Melaka from [[1463]] until [[1511]], when Melaka fell to the Portuguese, and the Ryukyuans diverted their trade activities to Pattani. Records of Ryukyuan activity in Java indicate interactions in [[1430]]-[[1442]], and again in [[1513]]-[[1518]]; unlike in relations with Siam and other regions, in Java and Sumatra local Chinese merchant communities directed the trade with Ryûkyû.<ref>Gunn, 220-221.</ref><br />
<br />
Much of Ryûkyû's trade with Korea in the 15th-16th centuries was conducted by Japanese merchants from [[Hakata]] and [[Sakai]], patronized by various ''daimyô''. Ryukyuan individuals also sometimes traveled themselves to Korea, or elsewhere, aboard these Japanese ships; at times, Japanese ships were able to get better treatment in Korean or other ports if they carried official Ryukyuan envoys. By 1480, however, these Ryukyuan-chartered Japanese trade missions declined significantly, the reputation of their legitimacy having been severely damaged by many Japanese traders falsely claiming to be official representatives of the island kingdom.<ref>Mark McNally, "A King's Legitimacy and a Kingdom's Exceptionality: Ryûkyû's Bankoku Shinryô no Kane of 1458," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6 (2015), 91-92.</ref> Further, after [[1592]], Japanese relations with China and Korea were at a nadir, and so Ryukyuan envoys and trade to Korea traveled via Beijing, and not via Japanese channels.<ref name=gunn219/><br />
<br />
Most sources indicate that, while the majority of the Ryukyuan peasantry were illiterate and led very simple lives, they always had enough to subsist on. The great wealth acquired by the royal government, government officials, aristocrats, and merchants did not spill over into conspicuous prosperity for all, but neither did the government truly oppress or impoverish the peasantry.<br />
<br />
Shô Hashi relocated the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]], nearer to the scholar-bureaucrat center of [[Kumemura]], and the port of [[Naha]], and expanded the ''[[gusuku]]'' (castle) there into a royal palace on the Chinese model. There, he worked to construct a notion of kingship based on the Chinese model, in which the king's rule was seen as legitimate not because of military might, but based on his virtuous character, and on a perception of the king as the benevolent ruler whose virtue united and sustained the kingdom. This discursive project, of constructing in Ryûkyû a Confucian kingdom, was continued by Hashi's successors, and may be said to have reached its full realization under King [[Sho Shin|Shô Shin]], in the first decades of the 16th century.<ref>Chan, 29.</ref><br />
<br />
The bureaucratic and governmental structures of the kingdom, based on those of Chûzan, developed and solidified over the course of the 15th century, following, in many ways, a Chinese model. A complex bureaucracy ran the kingdom, the heads of each branch known collectively as the [[Council of Fifteen]]. The king was of course at the top of the hierarchy, his chief advisor known as the ''[[sessei]]''. After [[1556]], when the mute [[Sho Gen|Shô Gen]] ascended the throne, a council of regents or advisors known as the ''[[Sanshikan]]'' emerged and gradually came to wield significant power, eventually eclipsing the ''sessei''. In these and other ways, the kingdom adopted Confucian & Ming customs, political philosophy, and practices in order to present a discourse of power and legitimacy both to China and other neighbors in the region, and to the Ryukyuan people, through an adoption of the Confucian rhetoric of the benevolent monarch from whom virtue and civilization emanates. Still, the royal court exercised considerable agency in shaping its adoption of Chinese customs and forms as it saw fit, maintaining much indigenous forms and elements as well. While the Chinese system of [[court ranks in China|court ranks]] was adopted, Ryûkyû did so with its own indigenous system of colored robes, hairpins, and [[hachimaki|court caps]] indicating [[Ryukyuan court ranks|court rank]], not adopting the Chinese system entirely. Further, internal government documents were regularly written in ''kana'', in the [[Okinawan language]], not in Chinese; students studying to join the scholar-bureaucracy were educated in Chinese, Japanese, and Okinawan, and in fact from the 17th century onwards, [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] and [[Confucian classics|classic Confucian texts]] were taught largely in Japanese forms, rather than in the original Chinese.<ref>Takatsu Takashi, “Ming Jianyang Prints and the Spread of the Teachings of Zhu Xi to Japan and the Ryukyu Kingdom in the Seventeenth Century,” in Angela Schottenhammer (ed.), ''The East Asian Mediterranean: Maritime Crossroads of Culture'', Harrassowitz Verlag (2008), 263-264.</ref> Chinese ''was'' used in formal communications with Ming (and later Qing) China, but even from quite early on, communications with Japan were written in a Japanese form called ''wayô kanbun'', and not in standard [[classical Chinese]].<ref>Chan, 70.</ref><br />
<br />
The village of Kumemura, a short distance from the capital at Shuri, had been founded in [[1393]] by a number of Chinese scholars, bureaucrats, and craftsmen from Fukien settled there with their families by order of the Ming Court. The town rapidly developed into a center of scholarship and Chinese culture, and came to be something of a training ground for the kingdom's bureaucrats; nearly all of the administrators in the royal government came from Kumemura, and positions were based on showing in royal examinations, rather than purely on birth. A system was also established by which a select few members of the Kumemura community would travel to Fuzhou and Beijing to study. In addition to becoming well-versed in the Chinese classics, and being educated and trained in the ways of a bureaucrat, these students would frequently bring back specific skills or knowledges to be implemented in the kingdom, such as geomancy, navigation, or various craft skills.<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Japanese Buddhist monks became one of the key avenues by which Japanese culture, including [[tea ceremony]], appreciation for tea wares and other Japanese [[pottery|ceramics]], and Japanese poetry and literary classics, was introduced to the Ryukyuan elites. [[Zen]] was the dominant form of [[Buddhism]] patronized by the royal family since its introduction by the Japanese monk [[Zenkan]] in [[1265]]; [[Shingon]] had also been introduced by a Japanese monk in the late 1360s, and a Chinese investiture envoy, [[Chai Shan]], established another major temple in [[1430]]. However, it was under Shô Taikyû (r. [[1454]]-[[1461]]) that Buddhism truly became firmly established and widespread. Shô Taikyû invited [[Kaiin]], a monk from Kyoto's [[Nanzen-ji]], to come and found a number of new temples, and to oversee the construction of a number of [[temple bells]]. Taikyû did not make Buddhism the state religion, but Zen did continue to enjoy a close relationship with the royal family, and Zen monks from Kongô-ji, Hôon-ji, Tennô-ji, Tenkai-ji, [[Tenryu-ji|Tenryû-j]], and Kenzen-ji came to play a particularly prominent role in not only cultural relations, but also political/diplomatic relations between Ryûkyû and Japanese entities such as the Shimazu clan and the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], while relations with other countries continued to be managed by the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats of Kumemura.<ref>Yokoyama, 38, 54.</ref><br />
<br />
King Shô Shin (r. [[1477]]-[[1526]]) is often said to have ruled over a golden age for the kingdom. He solidified and strengthened the power of the king (and of the central royal government more generally), both practically and ideologically. Areas outside of Shuri had previously been ruled by ''anji'', local/regional rulers akin perhaps to feudal lords, with considerable power and autonomy within their lands. Under Shô Shin's predecessors, and especially under Chûzan prior to the unification of the island, ''anji'' wielded considerable power, occasionally even toppling and replacing kings.<ref>As is believed to have happened at least once in Nanzan, as indicated in the ''Ming Taizong shilu''. Chan, 25-26.</ref> The ''anji'' were not fully secure in their power, however, as local elites beneath them could also overthrow their ''anji'' when they perceived him to be politically or spiritually weak; priestesses also wielded considerable local political power.<ref>Chan, 25-26.</ref><br />
<br />
Shô Shin addressed these competing powers by forcing the ''anji'' to reside in Shuri, transforming them into an aristocratic-bureaucrat class, and reorganizing their lands into ''[[magiri]]'' (districts)<ref>Though this term may have previously existed, it now became a more formalized unit of political geography as delineated by Shuri, and governed by those appointed from Shuri.</ref>. Each ''magiri'' consisted of a number of villages known either as ''mura'' or ''shima''; all together, the ''magiri'' comprised the "rural" or "provincial" portion of the kingdom, ''inaka no hô'' in modern Japanese, in contrast to Shuri, Kume, [[Tomari]], and Naha, the four "towns" (''machi'') which comprised the "urban" or "metropolitan" areas of the kingdom.<ref name=nahacity>Gallery labels, Naha City Museum of History.</ref> Officials not of an ''anji'' ("warlord") background were appointed by the royal court to govern these districts; thus, the power of the ''anji'' to act as independent feudal states was removed, and put into the hands of administrators who were reliant on the royal court for the ability to continue to hold that post. By the end of Shô Shin's reign, all military forces in the kingdom were under his command, rather than under the command of individual regional lords; regional forces were now known as ''magiri gun'', rather than ''anji gun'', associating them with the districts, and not with the regional lords. Shô Shin also expanded the reach of the kingdom by sending military forces to conquer or subjugate other islands, sometimes coming into conflict with Japanese forces from [[Satsuma province]] seeking to expand their influence south into the Ryukyus.<ref name=pacifism>Gregory Smits. "[http://www.japanfocus.org/-Gregory-Smits/3409 Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism]." ''The Asia-Pacific Journal'' 37-3-10 (September 13, 2010).</ref> <br />
<br />
Shô Shin and his predecessors also worked to consolidate royal power, and weaken the threat of rivalry from the ''anji'', by developing royal monopolies on maritime trade. They acquired oceangoing vessels from the Ming, monopolized [[lacquerware]] production, and maintained royal sources of various other goods, including [[Ryukyuan horses|horses]] and [[sulphur]];<ref>Chan, 58.</ref> much later, in the 1680s, the royal government ordered all [[Ryukyuan pottery|potters]] in the kingdom to relocate to the [[Tsuboya pottery|Tsuboya]] neighborhood of Naha, thus solidifying a royal monopoly on pottery as well.<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum.; Gallery labels, "The Tsuboya-yaki region" and "Okinawan pottery," Gallery 4: Minzoku, National Museum of Japanese History.</ref><br />
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Shô Shin also addressed the power of the priestesses by establishing a new religious hierarchy, with his sister [[Utuchitunumuigani]] as the first ''[[kikoe-ogimi|kikôe-ôgimi]]'', spiritual protector of the king and kingdom, and head of a hierarchy overseeing all ''[[noro]]'' and ''[[yuta]]'' priestesses in the kingdom. Though quite powerful still, the priestess establishment was now contained within the kingdom's institutions, and was less of a separate, independent, autonomous, power unto itself.<br />
<br />
Beginning in the 15th century, and continuing well into the 16th, the kingdom expanded its control over other islands in the Ryûkyû chain, both to the north and to the south. King [[Sho Toku|Shô Toku]] personally led an invasion force to [[Kikai-jima]] in [[1466]], and forces from the kingdom were dispatched to [[Kumejima]] in [[1506]]. Meanwhile, in 1500, [[Oyake Akahachi]], the dominant power on [[Ishigaki Island]], rose up in rebellion against the Shuri government, refusing to pay taxes or [[tribute]] to Shuri, and also making efforts to extend his own power over other nearby islands; Shuri's successful suppression of this rebellion, with the aid of [[Nakasone Toyomiya]] of [[Hateruma Island]] and other local elites, was followed immediately by Shuri appointing local "chiefs" or "heads" (''kashira''), many of them already elites native to the [[Miyako Islands|Miyako]] or [[Yaeyama Islands]], as official administrators recognized by, and in service to, the kingdom. A system of high priestesses, called ''[[oamu]]'', were also dispatched to the various southern islands. Meanwhile, the kingdom made efforts to expand to the north, where it encountered considerably greater resistance. Battles between the kingdom's forces and local resistance on [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and other parts of the [[Amami Islands]] continued well into the 1550s and 1560s. Ryukyuan forces also clashed with samurai forces from southern Kyushu, who were pushing southward. The Shimazu clan attacked Amami Ôshima in 1571, the same year as the island finally formally submitted to Shuri's authority, as part of an ultimately abortive attempt to conquer the entire kingdom. The furthest north Ryukyuan forces ever managed to attain territory was on [[Gajashima]], one of the [[Tokara Islands]] to the north of Amami. These expansionist efforts were aimed chiefly at consolidating power, and securing access to trade and resources. The kingdom made local elites dependent on Shuri for their legitimacy and authority, and required a certain amount of tax or tribute payments, along with certain other forms of service, but otherwise gave the Miyakos and Yaeyamas, as well as the Amami Islands, considerable leeway in managing their own affairs and maintaining their own cultures.<ref>Smits, "Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism"; Smits, "Rethinking Ryukyu," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6:1 (2015), 7.</ref><br />
<br />
The kingdom's booming trade declined around the 1570s, as the seas came to be dominated by other powers. Spanish and Portuguese galleons arrived around the mid-16th century, followed by the agents of the [[British East India Company|English]] and [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] [[East India Company|East India Companies]] at the beginning of the 17th. Meanwhile, Ming China lifted its bans on Chinese trade with, and in, Southeast Asia, in [[1567]], and Japan under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] began to engage in licensed trade under the ''[[shuinsen]]'' system after around [[1582]]. The dispatch of Ryukyuan trading ships to Siam in [[1570]] was to be the last act of direct Ryukyuan involvement in maritime trade in Southeast Asia.<ref>''Ryûkyû ôchô no bi'' 琉球王朝の美. Hikone Castle Museum 彦根城博物館. Hikone, 1993. p75.</ref><br />
<br />
The total population of the kingdom at this time stood around 100,000.<ref>McNally, 99.</ref><br />
<br />
===Invasion and Vassalage===<br />
Around 1590, the royal government was ordered by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, through agents of the [[Shimazu family]] of Satsuma, to provide troops, weapons, and other munitions to aid in his planned [[Korean invasions|invasions of Korea]]. King [[Sho Nei|Shô Nei]] deferred, and went beyond that, informing the Ming Court of Hideyoshi's plans by way of a letter from [[Jana ueekata]] in [[1591]],<ref>Gallery labels, "Kuninda - Ryûkyû to Chûgoku no kakehashi," special exhibit, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, Sept 2014.</ref> but ultimately sent a little over half the supplies the Shimazu demanded, by way of protecting the kingdom from violent repercussions.<ref>Akamine, 60.</ref> Still, this was but one in a series of instances in which the kingdom refused or ignored requests or demands from the Shimazu and Hideyoshi, or was otherwise less than fully cooperative in the 1570s-1600s, inspired perhaps in part by a fear of the increased threat of Ryukyuan ships being attacked by pirates.<ref>Kuroshima Satoru 黒島敏, ''Ryûkyû ôkoku to Sengoku daimyô'' 琉球王国と戦国大名, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (2016), 22.</ref> Still, it was in connection with the fact that the Shimazu communicated with Ryûkyû, and demonstrated some sort of special relationship, that Toyotomi Hideyoshi formally recognized Ryûkyû in [[1592]] as having some position within the feudal order, under Satsuma. Some scholars point to this as the origin, or otherwise a key element, of Satsuma's claims to authority over Ryûkyû.<ref>Akamine, 59-61.</ref><br />
<br />
Hideyoshi died in 1598, and was replaced as secular, martial, ruler of Japan a few years later by [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]]. Shô Nei ignored demands that he formally recognize the new [[Tokugawa shogunate]], and that his kingdom serve as intermediary to help the Tokugawa (re)establish formal relations with the Ming. In 1600, the shogunate returned a number of Ryukyuan castaways from [[Date clan]] territory in [[Tohoku region|Tôhoku]], and in 1605 the shogunate again returned a number of castaways, and much of their cargo, albeit while confiscating a portion of the cargo. Still, the Ryukyuan court issued no formal expression or mission of gratitude.<ref>Takara Kurayoshi 高良倉吉 and Tomiyama Kazuyuki 豊見山和行, ''Ryûkyû / Okinawa to kaijô no michi'' 琉球・沖縄と海上の道, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (2005), 82.</ref><br />
<br />
Citing these incidents, and a broader narrative of Ryukyuan failure to pay proper respects,<ref>The term employed by Takara Kurayoshi and Tomiyama Kazuyuki is ''heimon'' 聘問, meaning to visit someone & bring gifts in order to pay respects. Takara and Tomiyama, 82.</ref> the Shimazu house then requested permission from Tokugawa Ieyasu to launch a punitive mission. Permission was granted in 1606, and the [[invasion of Ryukyu]] was undertaken in [[1609]]. After a few battles on smaller outlying islands, the samurai forces seized Shuri Castle and took Shô Nei, along with a number of his chief officials, captive. All were brought to Japan, where they met with Ieyasu and his son, the reigning [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Hidetada]], and were forced to submit to a number of demands and conditions. The kingdom became a vassal state under the Shimazu, and was forced to pay taxes to Satsuma on a regular basis, as well as sending regular missions to Kagoshima, among several other obligations. The crown prince of the kingdom was to visit Kagoshima each year to formally reenact rituals of subordination or allegiance; envoys also traveled to Kagoshima on a number of other occasions, including as a "New Year's mission" (''nentôshi'') which included a rotation of Ryukyuan officials resident in the castle-town, and on special occasions such as the birth, marriage, succession, or death of a Shimazu lord.<ref name=tomi63/> A land survey conducted in 1610-1611 determined the ''[[kokudaka]]'' of the kingdom to be 89,086 ''[[koku]]'', a number which was revised upwards to just over 94,230 ''koku'' in [[1727]],<ref name=kokudaka/> of which the kingdom was permitted to keep 50,000 ''koku''.<ref name=akamine68>Akamine, 68.</ref> Based on this assessment, the kingdom was obliged to pay a certain amount of regular annual tax (''shinobose mai'') to Satsuma; originally paid in kind (i.e. in various products/commodities, mainly [[Ryukyuan textiles|textiles]]), this tax obligation was shifted to [[silver]], and then to rice by [[1620]]. The amount varied until [[1660]], at which time it became roughly stable; around [[1870]] the kingdom was paying just over 7,600 ''koku'' in annual tax, plus an additional 1,000 ''koku'' in supplemental tax.<ref name=tomi63>One year later, in [[1871]], following the [[abolition of the han]], Satsuma han was abolished but the kingdom was still obliged to pay tax to [[Kagoshima prefecture]], in the amount of 11,777 ''koku'' (including transportation costs, and with some 970,000 ''[[Japanese Measurements|kin]]'' of [[sugar]] substituted for 3,680 ''koku'' of rice. Tomiyama, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” 63.</ref> From [[1636]] onwards,<ref>Tomiyama, "Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy," 56.</ref> the kingdom was also obligated to provide Satsuma each year with a ''Kirishitan shûmon aratamechô'', a register of religious affiliation of everyone living in the kingdom, to help ensure there were no [[Christianity|Christians]],<ref>People were not required to register with a Buddhist temple, however, as they were in Japan.</ref> and to organize all the kingdom's subjects into ''[[goningumi]]'' - groups of five households which would be responsible for enforcing one another's lawful behavior. Satsuma was also charged with maintaining a coast guard which would prevent foreigners (specifically, Westerners and especially Christian missionaries) from entering Ryûkyû.<ref>This was seen as a kind of "house obligation" (''[[ieyaku]]'') of maritime defense service, of the same category as [[Saga han|Saga]] and [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka domains']] obligations to guard the port of [[Nagasaki]]. Satsuma and [[Tsushima han]] had served similar functions during the [[Muromachi period]] as well, guarding against events in Korea or Ryûkyû which might threaten Japan. Akamine, 66-67, 73.</ref> To further guard against foreigners entering the kingdom, a system of signal fires called ''fiitatimoo'' was established, along with a network of swift boats called ''tobifune'' in Japanese, which could inform Okinawa of any sightings or shipwrecks in the outer islands.<ref name=akamine68/> <br />
<br />
The king was restored to his castle and his kingdom in [[1611]], and was returned to power, though only within strict limits set by the Shimazu. In addition, while the kingdom retained the Ryukyus from Okinawa south (to the [[Sakishima Islands]] and [[Yonaguni]]), the [[Amami Islands]] and all other islands in the chain north of Okinawa Island proper were placed under the direct administration of Satsuma, though Satsuma and the shogunate both continued, through the end of the Edo period, to consider those islands part of the territory of the kingdom.<ref>Akamine, 69-70.</ref> A vassal state, Ryukyu was not considered an integral part of Japan until it was formally annexed as Okinawa Prefecture in 1879; while the provinces of Japan were regarded as ''takoku'' (他国, "other lands"), Ryukyu was considered ''ikoku'' (異国, "foreign lands"), along with China, Korea, Holland, and the rest of the world. However, ''[[Nanto zatsuwa|Nantô zatsuwa]]'', a Japanese text published in the 1850s, reveals that Ryukyuan people continued to travel between Okinawa and Amami, and to engage directly in trade in pottery, marine goods, and other products, despite the ostensible "national" boundaries (i.e. with travel to Amami, as part of Satsuma's territory, now being "foreign" travel and therefore theoretically subject to more strict control).<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, August 2013.</ref><br />
<br />
The king remained on his throne, and the royal court continued on much as it had, both in terms of political and administrative activities, and in terms of court rituals. Though Satsuma initially imposed stronger and more direct interference into Ryûkyû's governance, by the 1620s it began to loosen its involvement, and allowed Ryûkyû increased autonomy.<ref>Akamine, 79.</ref> The [[scholar-aristocracy of Ryukyu|scholar-aristocracy of Ryûkyû]] remained intact through the Satsuma invasion, continuing to pass down ranks and titles, and to occupy government posts, administering the kingdom in much the same fashion as they had previously. Practices and processes evolved and changed over the course of the early modern period, with a few developments in the 17th century having particularly significant impacts, but these were in some respects more natural developments, and not something that happened suddenly in connection with the Satsuma invasion. The aristocracy was divided more starkly from the commoners/villagers shortly after the invasion, and this was compounded, or solidified, by the implementation in [[1689]] of a system of family genealogies known as ''[[kafu]]'' or ''keizu''. Aristocratic families maintained books recording their family's aristocratic lineage, with another copy being kept by the court. Those who had such records of their lineage were known as ''keimochi'' ("possessing genealogy") and were the aristocracy, while those who lacked such records were ''mukei'' ("lacking genealogy"), and were commoners. Still, not all commoners were villagers or "peasants" (J: ''hyakushô''); many were "town commoners" (J: ''machi hyakushô''), and by the end of the early modern period, some town commoners had been able to purchase aristocratic status, and to begin new lineages.<ref name=nahacity/><br />
<br />
For the remainder of Japan's [[Edo period]] after the 1609 invasion, the kingdom served two masters, ostensibly independent, though a vassal to Satsuma and a tributary to China. As formal relations between Japan and China were severed, extensive efforts were made to hide Japan's control or influence over Ryukyu from the Chinese Court. If Beijing believed Ryukyu to be a part of Japan, it would have likely severed ties with Ryukyu as well, denying the kingdom and the shogunate not only a source of income and foreign goods through trade, but also a source of intelligence on events in the outside world, particularly China. Foreign trade, along with tributary missions and student exchange to China continued throughout this period, though overseen by Japanese authorities, and controlled so as to best benefit Satsuma and the shogunate, not the kingdom itself. Ryukyuans were forbidden from speaking Japanese, dressing in Japanese fashion, or otherwise revealing the Japanese influence upon them; the very few who were allowed to go abroad were to speak Chinese and to espouse a combination of native Ryukyuan and Chinese culture. This was not only policy for official envoys and official communications, but was circulated throughout the kingdom, instructing commoners and villagers (peasants) similarly, that if they were to be shipwrecked or castaway in China, for example, they should not speak of relations with Japan, or reveal their own familiarity with Japanese language or culture.<ref>[[Watanabe Miki]], "Ryûkyû kara mita Shinchô" 琉球から見た清朝, in Okada Hidehiro (ed.), ''Shinchô to ha nani ka'' 清朝とは何か, Fujiwara Shoten (2009), 257.</ref> Great efforts were made whenever Chinese envoys came to Ryûkyû to hide signs of Japanese influence from view, and a fiction was maintained that any signs of Japanese influence remaining were due to Ryukyuan trade and contact with the nearby [[Tokara Islands|Takarajima]], and not with mainland Japan.<ref>Matsuda Mitsugu, The Government of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, 1609-1872, Yui Publishing (2001), 60n34.</ref><br />
<br />
The kingdom became a valuable source of sugar, Chinese luxury goods, and certain other goods and commodities to Japan; Satsuma imported these goods, or claimed them as tax payments, and then sold them through [[goyo shonin|merchants officially associated with the domain]] in [[Kyoto]]. However, the kingdom quickly became dependent on Satsuma for silver, copper, tin, and various other goods and commodities, both for its own use, and for use as tribute goods to send to China. Sugar came to be used as one of the chief forms of collateral for such loans.<ref>Akamine, 74-75.</ref><br />
<br />
The kingdom became in various ways a tool for both the Shimazu and the shogunate, not only for purely economic benefit, but also to political ends. Ryukyuan students and embassies to Beijing provided unparalleled intelligence on Chinese matters which could not be gained from Korea or from merchants at [[Nagasaki]], who largely knew only of coastal and maritime matters. Tributary missions from Ryukyu to [[Edo]] were accompanied by great pomp and circumstance, and considerable entourages, though subsumed within the much larger Shimazu party making its obligatory ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' journey to the capital. The enforced exoticism of the Ryukyuan embassies reinforced for the shogunate and the Shimazu family both the notion that an entire foreign kingdom submitted to their authority. The shogunate made use of this to consolidate perceptions of the legitimacy of its authority, while the Shimazu used it as leverage to gain higher [[court rank]] and to negotiate for the bending of laws and taxation.<br />
<br />
Still, despite the overlordship of the Shimazu, the royal government enjoyed some flexibility in instituting domestic polities and reforms. Two governmental officials are of particular significance. [[Sho Shoken|Shô Shôken]], ''sessei'' from 1666-1673, wrote the first history of Ryukyu and helped institute a number of key reforms. He cut down on royal and aristocrati extravagance, in order to streamline expenses and ensure greater prosperity for the kingdom. He also suppressed the political influence and cultural importance of the [[yuta|priestesses]] of the native religion and cut down on royal involvement in many traditional rituals. This served to not only cut down on extravagance, but also was intended to help suppress elements of Ryukyuan culture which could be seen as backwards by China and Japan. [[Sai On]], royal regent roughly a century later, in the 1750s, continued and re-enacted many of Shô Shôken's policies, and went further, making considerable reforms to the kingdom's domestic economy, particularly in agriculture and forestry. His reforms helped the kingdom recover from a series of fires, famines, and other difficulties.<br />
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===Dissolution===<br />
[[Image:Meiji-naminoue.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Statue of Emperor Meiji at [[Naminoue Shrine]] in [[Okinawa]], identified as ''kokka'', or, "The State."]]<br />
::''Main article: [[Ryukyu shobun]]''<br />
Conditions changed dramatically for the kingdom in the 1850s, as they did for Japan as well. Commodore [[Matthew Perry]] was but one of a number of Westerners who made landfall in the Ryukyus around this time, seeking trade and diplomatic relations. Perry in fact signed treaties with the royal government in Ryukyu before ever traveling to Japan.<br />
<br />
The years following the [[1868]] [[Meiji Restoration]] brought drastic changes within Japan, and for the kingdom in turn. The kingdom was briefly transformed into "Okinawa [[han]]", before the ''han'' were [[abolition of the han|abolished]] entirely in [[1871]]. The dissolution of Satsuma han brought the end of Ryukyu's vassal relationship. The kingdom itself was dissolved eight years later, in [[1879]], "Okinawa han" becoming Okinawa Prefecture and the royal family being incorporated into the new Western-style Japanese [[kazoku|aristocracy]]. [[Sho Tai|Shô Tai]], the last king of Ryukyu, was brought to [[Tokyo]] from Shuri, along with his family, and made a Marquis. The vast cultural, educational, and social changes which swept Japan in the [[Meiji period]] came to Okinawa later and more slowly. By the turn of the 20th century, however, assimilation efforts were well underway, aimed at transforming Okinawa, and its inhabitants, into part of a single homogeneous Japanese nation.<br />
<br />
==List of Kings of Ryûkyû==<br />
<br />
In China, in the case of natural succession, it was usual to consider a ruler's reign as starting the year after the death or resignation of his predecessor. This way of dating was often used in the traditional histories of Ryukyu. <ref>For instance, the [[Chuzan seikan]] 中山世鑑 of 1650 gives the accession year 御即位 of Shô Hashi as 1422, the year after his father's death. Hashi died in the "18th year of his reign" in 1439, and his son's accession year was 1440.</ref> The list below, based on Matayoshi (1988), follows this convention, which is the one generally, though not universally, used.<br />
<br />
For [[Year dates|dating years]], records from the kingdom period normally use Chinese eras, though in some particular cases Japanese eras, together with the [[sexagenary cycle]], though in private records the cycle alone might be used. Years were not dated by the regnal years of kings. However, modern Okinawan historians often use regnal years in their writing, usually using the convention above. So the year Shô Hashi 1 usually indicates 1422, and Shô Chû 1 usually indicates 1440.<br />
<br />
<br />
#[[Sho Shisho|Shô Shishô (尚思紹) ]] (r.[[1406]]–[[1421]])<br />
#[[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi (尚巴志) ]] (r.[[1422]]–[[1439]])<br />
#[[Sho Chu|Shô Chû (尚忠) ]] (r.[[1440]]–[[1444]])<br />
#[[Sho Shitatsu|Shô Shitatsu (尚思達) ]] (r.[[1445]]–[[1449]])<br />
#[[Sho Kinpuku|Shô Kinpuku (尚金福) ]] (r.[[1450]]–[[1453]])<br />
#[[Sho Taikyu|Shô Taikyû (尚泰久) ]] (r.[[1454]]–[[1460]])<br />
#[[Sho Toku|Shô Toku (尚徳) ]] (r.[[1461]]–[[1469]])<br />
#[[Sho En|Shô En (尚円) ]] (r.[[1470]]–[[1476]])<br />
#[[Sho Seni|Shô Sen'i (尚宣威) ]] (r.[[1477]])<br />
#[[Sho Shin|Shô Shin (尚真) ]] (r.[[1477]]–[[1526]])<br />
#[[Sho Sei (尚清)|Shô Sei (尚清) ]] (r.[[1527]]–[[1555]])<br />
#[[Sho Gen|Shô Gen (尚元) ]] (r.[[1556]]–[[1572]])<br />
#[[Sho Ei|Shô Ei (尚永) ]] (r.[[1573]]–[[1588]])<br />
#[[Sho Nei|Shô Nei (尚寧) ]] (r.[[1589]]–[[1620]])<br />
#[[Sho Ho|Shô Hô (尚豊) ]] (r.[[1621]]–[[1640]])<br />
#[[Sho Ken|Shô Ken (尚賢) ]] (r.[[1641]]–[[1647]])<br />
#[[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu (尚質) ]] (r.[[1648]]–[[1668]])<br />
#[[Sho Tei|Shô Tei (尚貞) ]] (r.[[1669]]–[[1709]])<br />
#[[Sho Eki|Shô Eki (尚益) ]] (r.[[1710]]–[[1712]])<br />
#[[Sho Kei|Shô Kei (尚敬) ]] (r.[[1713]]–[[1751]])<br />
#[[Sho Boku|Shô Boku (尚穆) ]] (r.[[1752]]–[[1794]])<br />
#[[Sho On|Shô On (尚温) ]] (r.[[1795]]–[[1802]])<br />
#[[Sho Sei (尚成)|Shô Sei (尚成) ]] (r.[[1803]])<br />
#[[Sho Ko (尚灝)|Shô Kô (尚灝) ]] (r.[[1804]]–[[1834]])<br />
#[[Sho Iku|Shô Iku (尚育) ]] (r.[[1835]]–[[1847]])<br />
#[[Sho Tai|Shô Tai (尚泰) ]] (r.[[1848]]–[[1872]])<br />
<br />
==Notes & References==<br />
*[[Hamashita Takeshi|Hamashita, Takeshi]]. 沖縄入門 (''Okinawa nyuumon''). Tokyo: Chikumashobou (筑摩書房), 2000.<br />
*[[George Kerr|Kerr, George]]. ''Okinawa: the History of an Island People.'' (revised ed.) Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2000. <br />
*[[Gregory Smits|Smits, Gregory]]. ''Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999.<br />
*Yokoyama Manabu 横山学, ''Ryûkyû koku shisetsu torai no kenkyû'' 琉球国使節渡来の研究, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (1987).<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Government of the Ryukyu Kingdom|Government of the Ryûkyû Kingdom]]<br />
*[[Ryukyuan court ranks]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ryukyu|*]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Ryukyu&diff=39308Kingdom of Ryukyu2018-07-29T07:59:28Z<p>Bethetsu: /* List of Kings of Ryûkyû */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Shuri-seiden.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The rebuilt Seiden (main hall) of [[Shuri castle]], as it appears today]]<br />
[[File:King Sho En.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A [[ogo-e|posthumous official royal portrait]] of King [[Sho En|Shô En]]]]<br />
*''Existence: [[1429]]-[[1879]]''<br />
*''Territory: most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]]''<br />
*''[[Kokudaka]]: 89,086 (1610);<ref>As of a [[1610]] land survey. By [[1634]], this amount was counted as part of the ''kokudaka'' of Satsuma han.</ref> 94,230 (after 1727)<ref name=kokudaka>Tomiyama Kazuyuki, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” Ishihara Masahide et al (eds.), ''Self-determinable Development of Small Islands'', Singapore: Springer Publishing (2016), 63.; ''Shimazu ke rekidai seido'' (vol. 14, item #803), ''Kagoshima ken shiryô: Satsuma han hôrei shiryô shû 1'', Kagoshima: Reimeikan (2004), 510. While this figure represents the ''kokudaka'' of the islands administered by the kingdom, i.e. those from Okinawa Island in the north to the Sakishimas in the south, the Shimazu and the Tokugawa shogunate officially considered the production of the Amami Islands - administered by Kagoshima but still regarded as the territory of the kingdom - to be included in the kingdom's ''kokudaka'', for a grand total of 123,700 ''koku''. Akamine, 69-70.</ref><br />
*''Capital: [[Shuri]]''<br />
*''Kings: First & Second [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]''<br />
*''Japanese'': 琉球王国 ''(Ryuukyuu-ou-koku)''<br />
<br />
The Kingdom of Ryûkyû encompassed and ruled over most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]], which stretch between [[Kyushu|Kyûshû]] and Taiwan, from [[1429]] to [[1879]]. <br />
<br />
Ruled by the [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]] of kings from [[Shuri Castle]], on the island of [[Okinawa]], the kingdom was formed by the unification in 1419-1429 of the island, which had been previously divided into [[Sanzan period|three kingdoms]]. It was an independent state, though a [[tribute|tributary]] to Ming China, until the [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion of Ryûkyû]] by forces of Japan's [[Satsuma han]]. From then until its dissolution in [[1879]], the kingdom served as a semi-independent vassal state under Satsuma, and continued its tributary relationship with China.<br />
<br />
The kingdom's territory expanded over the course of the 15th-16th centuries, as the islands of the archipelago were absorbed into the kingdom one by one; after 1624, [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and a number of its neighboring islands were annexed by Satsuma han. The Amami Islands today remain part of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]] while the rest of the Ryûkyûs constitute [[Okinawa Prefecture]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Origins===<br />
Prior to [[1314]] or so, the Ryûkyû Islands were controlled by a myriad of small chiefdoms; those on the main island of Okinawa were loosely united under a "king". [[Tamagusuku]], who ascended to this post in 1314, lacked the charisma, leadership qualities, and skills to maintain this unity, and the island fractured into three polities<ref>For the sake of convenience and simplicity, most sources in English refer to these as "kingdoms" and their leaders as "kings", though most are also keen to point out that the political structures of the time continued to far more closely resemble chiefdoms. Though the Chinese character for "king" (王) is used in both Chinese and Japanese sources of the period, it is perhaps most accurate to not consider these rulers "kings" until sometime around the unification of Okinawa in 1419-1429.</ref>: [[Nanzan]] in the south of the island, [[Hokuzan]] in the north, and [[Chuzan|Chûzan]] in the center.<br />
<br />
Over the course of the next hundred years, the three polities consolidated their power, build a great many fortresses (''[[gusuku]]''), and expanded through trade. Chûzan entered into tributary relations with Ming China in [[1372]], the other two polities following suit within the next decade, and began to receive royal [[investiture]] from China as well. The three polities expanded their territory in this period as well, slowly acquiring the other nearby islands either as tributary states or as outright annexed territories, and entering into diplomatic and trade relations with Japan and Korea, as well as with a number of Southeast Asian polities.<ref name=gunn219>Geoffrey Gunn, ''History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000-1800'', Hong Kong University Press (2011), 219.</ref><br />
<br />
A local lord (''[[anji]]'') by the name of Hashi rose to power at the beginning of the 15th century, and overthrew the king of Chûzan, [[Bunei]], around 1407. Hashi originally set up his father as king, but continued to wield power behind the scenes, succeeding his father in 1422. The two received formal investiture from the Ming Court, and were granted the surname Shô (尚, "Shang" in Chinese); father and son thus became [[Sho Shisho|Shô Shisho]] and [[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi]] respectively, marking the beginning of the first [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]. Under their leadership, Chûzan conquered Hokuzan in 1419 and Nanzan in 1429, uniting the island of Okinawa, establishing the Kingdom of Ryûkyû, and moving the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]].<br />
<br />
===Independence===<br />
[[File:Bridge of Nations Bell.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A replica of the ''Bankoku shinryô no kane'', or [[Bridge of Nations Bell]], hanging at Shuri castle. The inscription speaks of Ryûkyû as a bridge between all nations]]<br />
[[File:Shureimon.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Shureimon gate to Shuri castle, bearing a plaque reading "Nation of Propriety"]]<br />
[[File:Shiseibyo-gate.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The main gate to the [[Shiseibyo|Confucian temple]] in [[Kumemura]]]]<br />
Despite its tiny land area, the kingdom came to play a crucial role in regional trade networks as a transshipping point. Much of the tribute goods paid by the kingdom to China came originally from Southeast Asia. Hundreds of Ryukyuan vessels, many of them acquired from the Ming, but operating on behalf of the Ryukyuan royal government, traversed the seas, making port in China, Korea, Japan, and at least eight different ports across Southeast Asia, engaging not only in trade but also in diplomatic exchanges.<ref>Records show a number of instances of Ryûkyû requesting seagoing vessels from Ming and from Siam, explicitly for the purpose of facilitating maritime trade activities. Some scholars have suggested this indicates that Ryukyuan vessels were themselves not capable of traversing such vast distances safely or effectively. Chan, Ying Kit. “A Bridge between Myriad Lands: The Ryukyu Kingdom and Ming China (1372-1526).” MA Thesis, National University of Singapore, 2010, 58n147, 60. http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/20602.</ref> Goods from Japan consisted primarily of precious metals and objects of fine art; the kingdom acquired primarily medicinal herbs, ceramics, and textiles from Korea and China. These were then exchanged in Luzon, Siam, Java (Sunda), Melaka, Palembang, Sumatra, Pattani, and Annam for a variety of spices, aromatic woods, skins, ivory, and other animal products, and sugar. Ryukyuan ships traveling to Southeast Asia were typically manned by entirely Chinese crews, with Chinese navigators, though they were always captained by native Ryukyuans, with the exception of missions to Java.<ref>Gunn, 220.</ref><br />
<br />
Annam was perhaps the greatest of Ryûkyû's Southeast Asian trading partners, with a greater number of Ryukyuan ships traveling to Annam in the 16th century than to any other destination outside of China. Eleven other destinations also saw more Ryukyuan ships in that period than Japan did.<ref>McNally, 96.</ref> Siam, meanwhile, was the only Southeast Asian polity to which Ryûkyû sold [[sulfur]]. Interactions with Siam began as early as the 1380s, via Chinese intermediaries, but in the 15th century came to be handled more directly by Ryukyuan merchants. With perhaps only one exception, Siamese ships did not travel to Ryûkyû; the trade was conducted entirely on Ryukyuan vessels. Ryûkyû traded with the sultans of Melaka from [[1463]] until [[1511]], when Melaka fell to the Portuguese, and the Ryukyuans diverted their trade activities to Pattani. Records of Ryukyuan activity in Java indicate interactions in [[1430]]-[[1442]], and again in [[1513]]-[[1518]]; unlike in relations with Siam and other regions, in Java and Sumatra local Chinese merchant communities directed the trade with Ryûkyû.<ref>Gunn, 220-221.</ref><br />
<br />
Much of Ryûkyû's trade with Korea in the 15th-16th centuries was conducted by Japanese merchants from [[Hakata]] and [[Sakai]], patronized by various ''daimyô''. Ryukyuan individuals also sometimes traveled themselves to Korea, or elsewhere, aboard these Japanese ships; at times, Japanese ships were able to get better treatment in Korean or other ports if they carried official Ryukyuan envoys. By 1480, however, these Ryukyuan-chartered Japanese trade missions declined significantly, the reputation of their legitimacy having been severely damaged by many Japanese traders falsely claiming to be official representatives of the island kingdom.<ref>Mark McNally, "A King's Legitimacy and a Kingdom's Exceptionality: Ryûkyû's Bankoku Shinryô no Kane of 1458," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6 (2015), 91-92.</ref> Further, after [[1592]], Japanese relations with China and Korea were at a nadir, and so Ryukyuan envoys and trade to Korea traveled via Beijing, and not via Japanese channels.<ref name=gunn219/><br />
<br />
Most sources indicate that, while the majority of the Ryukyuan peasantry were illiterate and led very simple lives, they always had enough to subsist on. The great wealth acquired by the royal government, government officials, aristocrats, and merchants did not spill over into conspicuous prosperity for all, but neither did the government truly oppress or impoverish the peasantry.<br />
<br />
Shô Hashi relocated the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]], nearer to the scholar-bureaucrat center of [[Kumemura]], and the port of [[Naha]], and expanded the ''[[gusuku]]'' (castle) there into a royal palace on the Chinese model. There, he worked to construct a notion of kingship based on the Chinese model, in which the king's rule was seen as legitimate not because of military might, but based on his virtuous character, and on a perception of the king as the benevolent ruler whose virtue united and sustained the kingdom. This discursive project, of constructing in Ryûkyû a Confucian kingdom, was continued by Hashi's successors, and may be said to have reached its full realization under King [[Sho Shin|Shô Shin]], in the first decades of the 16th century.<ref>Chan, 29.</ref><br />
<br />
The bureaucratic and governmental structures of the kingdom, based on those of Chûzan, developed and solidified over the course of the 15th century, following, in many ways, a Chinese model. A complex bureaucracy ran the kingdom, the heads of each branch known collectively as the [[Council of Fifteen]]. The king was of course at the top of the hierarchy, his chief advisor known as the ''[[sessei]]''. After [[1556]], when the mute [[Sho Gen|Shô Gen]] ascended the throne, a council of regents or advisors known as the ''[[Sanshikan]]'' emerged and gradually came to wield significant power, eventually eclipsing the ''sessei''. In these and other ways, the kingdom adopted Confucian & Ming customs, political philosophy, and practices in order to present a discourse of power and legitimacy both to China and other neighbors in the region, and to the Ryukyuan people, through an adoption of the Confucian rhetoric of the benevolent monarch from whom virtue and civilization emanates. Still, the royal court exercised considerable agency in shaping its adoption of Chinese customs and forms as it saw fit, maintaining much indigenous forms and elements as well. While the Chinese system of [[court ranks in China|court ranks]] was adopted, Ryûkyû did so with its own indigenous system of colored robes, hairpins, and [[hachimaki|court caps]] indicating [[Ryukyuan court ranks|court rank]], not adopting the Chinese system entirely. Further, internal government documents were regularly written in ''kana'', in the [[Okinawan language]], not in Chinese; students studying to join the scholar-bureaucracy were educated in Chinese, Japanese, and Okinawan, and in fact from the 17th century onwards, [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] and [[Confucian classics|classic Confucian texts]] were taught largely in Japanese forms, rather than in the original Chinese.<ref>Takatsu Takashi, “Ming Jianyang Prints and the Spread of the Teachings of Zhu Xi to Japan and the Ryukyu Kingdom in the Seventeenth Century,” in Angela Schottenhammer (ed.), ''The East Asian Mediterranean: Maritime Crossroads of Culture'', Harrassowitz Verlag (2008), 263-264.</ref> Chinese ''was'' used in formal communications with Ming (and later Qing) China, but even from quite early on, communications with Japan were written in a Japanese form called ''wayô kanbun'', and not in standard [[classical Chinese]].<ref>Chan, 70.</ref><br />
<br />
The village of Kumemura, a short distance from the capital at Shuri, had been founded in [[1393]] by a number of Chinese scholars, bureaucrats, and craftsmen from Fukien settled there with their families by order of the Ming Court. The town rapidly developed into a center of scholarship and Chinese culture, and came to be something of a training ground for the kingdom's bureaucrats; nearly all of the administrators in the royal government came from Kumemura, and positions were based on showing in royal examinations, rather than purely on birth. A system was also established by which a select few members of the Kumemura community would travel to Fuzhou and Beijing to study. In addition to becoming well-versed in the Chinese classics, and being educated and trained in the ways of a bureaucrat, these students would frequently bring back specific skills or knowledges to be implemented in the kingdom, such as geomancy, navigation, or various craft skills.<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Japanese Buddhist monks became one of the key avenues by which Japanese culture, including [[tea ceremony]], appreciation for tea wares and other Japanese [[pottery|ceramics]], and Japanese poetry and literary classics, was introduced to the Ryukyuan elites. [[Zen]] was the dominant form of [[Buddhism]] patronized by the royal family since its introduction by the Japanese monk [[Zenkan]] in [[1265]]; [[Shingon]] had also been introduced by a Japanese monk in the late 1360s, and a Chinese investiture envoy, [[Chai Shan]], established another major temple in [[1430]]. However, it was under Shô Taikyû (r. [[1454]]-[[1461]]) that Buddhism truly became firmly established and widespread. Shô Taikyû invited [[Kaiin]], a monk from Kyoto's [[Nanzen-ji]], to come and found a number of new temples, and to oversee the construction of a number of [[temple bells]]. Taikyû did not make Buddhism the state religion, but Zen did continue to enjoy a close relationship with the royal family, and Zen monks from Kongô-ji, Hôon-ji, Tennô-ji, Tenkai-ji, [[Tenryu-ji|Tenryû-j]], and Kenzen-ji came to play a particularly prominent role in not only cultural relations, but also political/diplomatic relations between Ryûkyû and Japanese entities such as the Shimazu clan and the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], while relations with other countries continued to be managed by the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats of Kumemura.<ref>Yokoyama, 38, 54.</ref><br />
<br />
King Shô Shin (r. [[1477]]-[[1526]]) is often said to have ruled over a golden age for the kingdom. He solidified and strengthened the power of the king (and of the central royal government more generally), both practically and ideologically. Areas outside of Shuri had previously been ruled by ''anji'', local/regional rulers akin perhaps to feudal lords, with considerable power and autonomy within their lands. Under Shô Shin's predecessors, and especially under Chûzan prior to the unification of the island, ''anji'' wielded considerable power, occasionally even toppling and replacing kings.<ref>As is believed to have happened at least once in Nanzan, as indicated in the ''Ming Taizong shilu''. Chan, 25-26.</ref> The ''anji'' were not fully secure in their power, however, as local elites beneath them could also overthrow their ''anji'' when they perceived him to be politically or spiritually weak; priestesses also wielded considerable local political power.<ref>Chan, 25-26.</ref><br />
<br />
Shô Shin addressed these competing powers by forcing the ''anji'' to reside in Shuri, transforming them into an aristocratic-bureaucrat class, and reorganizing their lands into ''[[magiri]]'' (districts)<ref>Though this term may have previously existed, it now became a more formalized unit of political geography as delineated by Shuri, and governed by those appointed from Shuri.</ref>. Each ''magiri'' consisted of a number of villages known either as ''mura'' or ''shima''; all together, the ''magiri'' comprised the "rural" or "provincial" portion of the kingdom, ''inaka no hô'' in modern Japanese, in contrast to Shuri, Kume, [[Tomari]], and Naha, the four "towns" (''machi'') which comprised the "urban" or "metropolitan" areas of the kingdom.<ref name=nahacity>Gallery labels, Naha City Museum of History.</ref> Officials not of an ''anji'' ("warlord") background were appointed by the royal court to govern these districts; thus, the power of the ''anji'' to act as independent feudal states was removed, and put into the hands of administrators who were reliant on the royal court for the ability to continue to hold that post. By the end of Shô Shin's reign, all military forces in the kingdom were under his command, rather than under the command of individual regional lords; regional forces were now known as ''magiri gun'', rather than ''anji gun'', associating them with the districts, and not with the regional lords. Shô Shin also expanded the reach of the kingdom by sending military forces to conquer or subjugate other islands, sometimes coming into conflict with Japanese forces from [[Satsuma province]] seeking to expand their influence south into the Ryukyus.<ref name=pacifism>Gregory Smits. "[http://www.japanfocus.org/-Gregory-Smits/3409 Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism]." ''The Asia-Pacific Journal'' 37-3-10 (September 13, 2010).</ref> <br />
<br />
Shô Shin and his predecessors also worked to consolidate royal power, and weaken the threat of rivalry from the ''anji'', by developing royal monopolies on maritime trade. They acquired oceangoing vessels from the Ming, monopolized [[lacquerware]] production, and maintained royal sources of various other goods, including [[Ryukyuan horses|horses]] and [[sulphur]];<ref>Chan, 58.</ref> much later, in the 1680s, the royal government ordered all [[Ryukyuan pottery|potters]] in the kingdom to relocate to the [[Tsuboya pottery|Tsuboya]] neighborhood of Naha, thus solidifying a royal monopoly on pottery as well.<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum.; Gallery labels, "The Tsuboya-yaki region" and "Okinawan pottery," Gallery 4: Minzoku, National Museum of Japanese History.</ref><br />
<br />
Shô Shin also addressed the power of the priestesses by establishing a new religious hierarchy, with his sister [[Utuchitunumuigani]] as the first ''[[kikoe-ogimi|kikôe-ôgimi]]'', spiritual protector of the king and kingdom, and head of a hierarchy overseeing all ''[[noro]]'' and ''[[yuta]]'' priestesses in the kingdom. Though quite powerful still, the priestess establishment was now contained within the kingdom's institutions, and was less of a separate, independent, autonomous, power unto itself.<br />
<br />
Beginning in the 15th century, and continuing well into the 16th, the kingdom expanded its control over other islands in the Ryûkyû chain, both to the north and to the south. King [[Sho Toku|Shô Toku]] personally led an invasion force to [[Kikai-jima]] in [[1466]], and forces from the kingdom were dispatched to [[Kumejima]] in [[1506]]. Meanwhile, in 1500, [[Oyake Akahachi]], the dominant power on [[Ishigaki Island]], rose up in rebellion against the Shuri government, refusing to pay taxes or [[tribute]] to Shuri, and also making efforts to extend his own power over other nearby islands; Shuri's successful suppression of this rebellion, with the aid of [[Nakasone Toyomiya]] of [[Hateruma Island]] and other local elites, was followed immediately by Shuri appointing local "chiefs" or "heads" (''kashira''), many of them already elites native to the [[Miyako Islands|Miyako]] or [[Yaeyama Islands]], as official administrators recognized by, and in service to, the kingdom. A system of high priestesses, called ''[[oamu]]'', were also dispatched to the various southern islands. Meanwhile, the kingdom made efforts to expand to the north, where it encountered considerably greater resistance. Battles between the kingdom's forces and local resistance on [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and other parts of the [[Amami Islands]] continued well into the 1550s and 1560s. Ryukyuan forces also clashed with samurai forces from southern Kyushu, who were pushing southward. The Shimazu clan attacked Amami Ôshima in 1571, the same year as the island finally formally submitted to Shuri's authority, as part of an ultimately abortive attempt to conquer the entire kingdom. The furthest north Ryukyuan forces ever managed to attain territory was on [[Gajashima]], one of the [[Tokara Islands]] to the north of Amami. These expansionist efforts were aimed chiefly at consolidating power, and securing access to trade and resources. The kingdom made local elites dependent on Shuri for their legitimacy and authority, and required a certain amount of tax or tribute payments, along with certain other forms of service, but otherwise gave the Miyakos and Yaeyamas, as well as the Amami Islands, considerable leeway in managing their own affairs and maintaining their own cultures.<ref>Smits, "Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism"; Smits, "Rethinking Ryukyu," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6:1 (2015), 7.</ref><br />
<br />
The kingdom's booming trade declined around the 1570s, as the seas came to be dominated by other powers. Spanish and Portuguese galleons arrived around the mid-16th century, followed by the agents of the [[British East India Company|English]] and [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] [[East India Company|East India Companies]] at the beginning of the 17th. Meanwhile, Ming China lifted its bans on Chinese trade with, and in, Southeast Asia, in [[1567]], and Japan under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] began to engage in licensed trade under the ''[[shuinsen]]'' system after around [[1582]]. The dispatch of Ryukyuan trading ships to Siam in [[1570]] was to be the last act of direct Ryukyuan involvement in maritime trade in Southeast Asia.<ref>''Ryûkyû ôchô no bi'' 琉球王朝の美. Hikone Castle Museum 彦根城博物館. Hikone, 1993. p75.</ref><br />
<br />
The total population of the kingdom at this time stood around 100,000.<ref>McNally, 99.</ref><br />
<br />
===Invasion and Vassalage===<br />
Around 1590, the royal government was ordered by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, through agents of the [[Shimazu family]] of Satsuma, to provide troops, weapons, and other munitions to aid in his planned [[Korean invasions|invasions of Korea]]. King [[Sho Nei|Shô Nei]] deferred, and went beyond that, informing the Ming Court of Hideyoshi's plans by way of a letter from [[Jana ueekata]] in [[1591]],<ref>Gallery labels, "Kuninda - Ryûkyû to Chûgoku no kakehashi," special exhibit, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, Sept 2014.</ref> but ultimately sent a little over half the supplies the Shimazu demanded, by way of protecting the kingdom from violent repercussions.<ref>Akamine, 60.</ref> Still, this was but one in a series of instances in which the kingdom refused or ignored requests or demands from the Shimazu and Hideyoshi, or was otherwise less than fully cooperative in the 1570s-1600s, inspired perhaps in part by a fear of the increased threat of Ryukyuan ships being attacked by pirates.<ref>Kuroshima Satoru 黒島敏, ''Ryûkyû ôkoku to Sengoku daimyô'' 琉球王国と戦国大名, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (2016), 22.</ref> Still, it was in connection with the fact that the Shimazu communicated with Ryûkyû, and demonstrated some sort of special relationship, that Toyotomi Hideyoshi formally recognized Ryûkyû in [[1592]] as having some position within the feudal order, under Satsuma. Some scholars point to this as the origin, or otherwise a key element, of Satsuma's claims to authority over Ryûkyû.<ref>Akamine, 59-61.</ref><br />
<br />
Hideyoshi died in 1598, and was replaced as secular, martial, ruler of Japan a few years later by [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]]. Shô Nei ignored demands that he formally recognize the new [[Tokugawa shogunate]], and that his kingdom serve as intermediary to help the Tokugawa (re)establish formal relations with the Ming. In 1600, the shogunate returned a number of Ryukyuan castaways from [[Date clan]] territory in [[Tohoku region|Tôhoku]], and in 1605 the shogunate again returned a number of castaways, and much of their cargo, albeit while confiscating a portion of the cargo. Still, the Ryukyuan court issued no formal expression or mission of gratitude.<ref>Takara Kurayoshi 高良倉吉 and Tomiyama Kazuyuki 豊見山和行, ''Ryûkyû / Okinawa to kaijô no michi'' 琉球・沖縄と海上の道, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (2005), 82.</ref><br />
<br />
Citing these incidents, and a broader narrative of Ryukyuan failure to pay proper respects,<ref>The term employed by Takara Kurayoshi and Tomiyama Kazuyuki is ''heimon'' 聘問, meaning to visit someone & bring gifts in order to pay respects. Takara and Tomiyama, 82.</ref> the Shimazu house then requested permission from Tokugawa Ieyasu to launch a punitive mission. Permission was granted in 1606, and the [[invasion of Ryukyu]] was undertaken in [[1609]]. After a few battles on smaller outlying islands, the samurai forces seized Shuri Castle and took Shô Nei, along with a number of his chief officials, captive. All were brought to Japan, where they met with Ieyasu and his son, the reigning [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Hidetada]], and were forced to submit to a number of demands and conditions. The kingdom became a vassal state under the Shimazu, and was forced to pay taxes to Satsuma on a regular basis, as well as sending regular missions to Kagoshima, among several other obligations. The crown prince of the kingdom was to visit Kagoshima each year to formally reenact rituals of subordination or allegiance; envoys also traveled to Kagoshima on a number of other occasions, including as a "New Year's mission" (''nentôshi'') which included a rotation of Ryukyuan officials resident in the castle-town, and on special occasions such as the birth, marriage, succession, or death of a Shimazu lord.<ref name=tomi63/> A land survey conducted in 1610-1611 determined the ''[[kokudaka]]'' of the kingdom to be 89,086 ''[[koku]]'', a number which was revised upwards to just over 94,230 ''koku'' in [[1727]],<ref name=kokudaka/> of which the kingdom was permitted to keep 50,000 ''koku''.<ref name=akamine68>Akamine, 68.</ref> Based on this assessment, the kingdom was obliged to pay a certain amount of regular annual tax (''shinobose mai'') to Satsuma; originally paid in kind (i.e. in various products/commodities, mainly [[Ryukyuan textiles|textiles]]), this tax obligation was shifted to [[silver]], and then to rice by [[1620]]. The amount varied until [[1660]], at which time it became roughly stable; around [[1870]] the kingdom was paying just over 7,600 ''koku'' in annual tax, plus an additional 1,000 ''koku'' in supplemental tax.<ref name=tomi63>One year later, in [[1871]], following the [[abolition of the han]], Satsuma han was abolished but the kingdom was still obliged to pay tax to [[Kagoshima prefecture]], in the amount of 11,777 ''koku'' (including transportation costs, and with some 970,000 ''[[Japanese Measurements|kin]]'' of [[sugar]] substituted for 3,680 ''koku'' of rice. Tomiyama, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” 63.</ref> From [[1636]] onwards,<ref>Tomiyama, "Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy," 56.</ref> the kingdom was also obligated to provide Satsuma each year with a ''Kirishitan shûmon aratamechô'', a register of religious affiliation of everyone living in the kingdom, to help ensure there were no [[Christianity|Christians]],<ref>People were not required to register with a Buddhist temple, however, as they were in Japan.</ref> and to organize all the kingdom's subjects into ''[[goningumi]]'' - groups of five households which would be responsible for enforcing one another's lawful behavior. Satsuma was also charged with maintaining a coast guard which would prevent foreigners (specifically, Westerners and especially Christian missionaries) from entering Ryûkyû.<ref>This was seen as a kind of "house obligation" (''[[ieyaku]]'') of maritime defense service, of the same category as [[Saga han|Saga]] and [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka domains']] obligations to guard the port of [[Nagasaki]]. Satsuma and [[Tsushima han]] had served similar functions during the [[Muromachi period]] as well, guarding against events in Korea or Ryûkyû which might threaten Japan. Akamine, 66-67, 73.</ref> To further guard against foreigners entering the kingdom, a system of signal fires called ''fiitatimoo'' was established, along with a network of swift boats called ''tobifune'' in Japanese, which could inform Okinawa of any sightings or shipwrecks in the outer islands.<ref name=akamine68/> <br />
<br />
The king was restored to his castle and his kingdom in [[1611]], and was returned to power, though only within strict limits set by the Shimazu. In addition, while the kingdom retained the Ryukyus from Okinawa south (to the [[Sakishima Islands]] and [[Yonaguni]]), the [[Amami Islands]] and all other islands in the chain north of Okinawa Island proper were placed under the direct administration of Satsuma, though Satsuma and the shogunate both continued, through the end of the Edo period, to consider those islands part of the territory of the kingdom.<ref>Akamine, 69-70.</ref> A vassal state, Ryukyu was not considered an integral part of Japan until it was formally annexed as Okinawa Prefecture in 1879; while the provinces of Japan were regarded as ''takoku'' (他国, "other lands"), Ryukyu was considered ''ikoku'' (異国, "foreign lands"), along with China, Korea, Holland, and the rest of the world. However, ''[[Nanto zatsuwa|Nantô zatsuwa]]'', a Japanese text published in the 1850s, reveals that Ryukyuan people continued to travel between Okinawa and Amami, and to engage directly in trade in pottery, marine goods, and other products, despite the ostensible "national" boundaries (i.e. with travel to Amami, as part of Satsuma's territory, now being "foreign" travel and therefore theoretically subject to more strict control).<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, August 2013.</ref><br />
<br />
The king remained on his throne, and the royal court continued on much as it had, both in terms of political and administrative activities, and in terms of court rituals. Though Satsuma initially imposed stronger and more direct interference into Ryûkyû's governance, by the 1620s it began to loosen its involvement, and allowed Ryûkyû increased autonomy.<ref>Akamine, 79.</ref> The [[scholar-aristocracy of Ryukyu|scholar-aristocracy of Ryûkyû]] remained intact through the Satsuma invasion, continuing to pass down ranks and titles, and to occupy government posts, administering the kingdom in much the same fashion as they had previously. Practices and processes evolved and changed over the course of the early modern period, with a few developments in the 17th century having particularly significant impacts, but these were in some respects more natural developments, and not something that happened suddenly in connection with the Satsuma invasion. The aristocracy was divided more starkly from the commoners/villagers shortly after the invasion, and this was compounded, or solidified, by the implementation in [[1689]] of a system of family genealogies known as ''[[kafu]]'' or ''keizu''. Aristocratic families maintained books recording their family's aristocratic lineage, with another copy being kept by the court. Those who had such records of their lineage were known as ''keimochi'' ("possessing genealogy") and were the aristocracy, while those who lacked such records were ''mukei'' ("lacking genealogy"), and were commoners. Still, not all commoners were villagers or "peasants" (J: ''hyakushô''); many were "town commoners" (J: ''machi hyakushô''), and by the end of the early modern period, some town commoners had been able to purchase aristocratic status, and to begin new lineages.<ref name=nahacity/><br />
<br />
For the remainder of Japan's [[Edo period]] after the 1609 invasion, the kingdom served two masters, ostensibly independent, though a vassal to Satsuma and a tributary to China. As formal relations between Japan and China were severed, extensive efforts were made to hide Japan's control or influence over Ryukyu from the Chinese Court. If Beijing believed Ryukyu to be a part of Japan, it would have likely severed ties with Ryukyu as well, denying the kingdom and the shogunate not only a source of income and foreign goods through trade, but also a source of intelligence on events in the outside world, particularly China. Foreign trade, along with tributary missions and student exchange to China continued throughout this period, though overseen by Japanese authorities, and controlled so as to best benefit Satsuma and the shogunate, not the kingdom itself. Ryukyuans were forbidden from speaking Japanese, dressing in Japanese fashion, or otherwise revealing the Japanese influence upon them; the very few who were allowed to go abroad were to speak Chinese and to espouse a combination of native Ryukyuan and Chinese culture. This was not only policy for official envoys and official communications, but was circulated throughout the kingdom, instructing commoners and villagers (peasants) similarly, that if they were to be shipwrecked or castaway in China, for example, they should not speak of relations with Japan, or reveal their own familiarity with Japanese language or culture.<ref>[[Watanabe Miki]], "Ryûkyû kara mita Shinchô" 琉球から見た清朝, in Okada Hidehiro (ed.), ''Shinchô to ha nani ka'' 清朝とは何か, Fujiwara Shoten (2009), 257.</ref> Great efforts were made whenever Chinese envoys came to Ryûkyû to hide signs of Japanese influence from view, and a fiction was maintained that any signs of Japanese influence remaining were due to Ryukyuan trade and contact with the nearby [[Tokara Islands|Takarajima]], and not with mainland Japan.<ref>Matsuda Mitsugu, The Government of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, 1609-1872, Yui Publishing (2001), 60n34.</ref><br />
<br />
The kingdom became a valuable source of sugar, Chinese luxury goods, and certain other goods and commodities to Japan; Satsuma imported these goods, or claimed them as tax payments, and then sold them through [[goyo shonin|merchants officially associated with the domain]] in [[Kyoto]]. However, the kingdom quickly became dependent on Satsuma for silver, copper, tin, and various other goods and commodities, both for its own use, and for use as tribute goods to send to China. Sugar came to be used as one of the chief forms of collateral for such loans.<ref>Akamine, 74-75.</ref><br />
<br />
The kingdom became in various ways a tool for both the Shimazu and the shogunate, not only for purely economic benefit, but also to political ends. Ryukyuan students and embassies to Beijing provided unparalleled intelligence on Chinese matters which could not be gained from Korea or from merchants at [[Nagasaki]], who largely knew only of coastal and maritime matters. Tributary missions from Ryukyu to [[Edo]] were accompanied by great pomp and circumstance, and considerable entourages, though subsumed within the much larger Shimazu party making its obligatory ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' journey to the capital. The enforced exoticism of the Ryukyuan embassies reinforced for the shogunate and the Shimazu family both the notion that an entire foreign kingdom submitted to their authority. The shogunate made use of this to consolidate perceptions of the legitimacy of its authority, while the Shimazu used it as leverage to gain higher [[court rank]] and to negotiate for the bending of laws and taxation.<br />
<br />
Still, despite the overlordship of the Shimazu, the royal government enjoyed some flexibility in instituting domestic polities and reforms. Two governmental officials are of particular significance. [[Sho Shoken|Shô Shôken]], ''sessei'' from 1666-1673, wrote the first history of Ryukyu and helped institute a number of key reforms. He cut down on royal and aristocrati extravagance, in order to streamline expenses and ensure greater prosperity for the kingdom. He also suppressed the political influence and cultural importance of the [[yuta|priestesses]] of the native religion and cut down on royal involvement in many traditional rituals. This served to not only cut down on extravagance, but also was intended to help suppress elements of Ryukyuan culture which could be seen as backwards by China and Japan. [[Sai On]], royal regent roughly a century later, in the 1750s, continued and re-enacted many of Shô Shôken's policies, and went further, making considerable reforms to the kingdom's domestic economy, particularly in agriculture and forestry. His reforms helped the kingdom recover from a series of fires, famines, and other difficulties.<br />
<br />
===Dissolution===<br />
[[Image:Meiji-naminoue.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Statue of Emperor Meiji at [[Naminoue Shrine]] in [[Okinawa]], identified as ''kokka'', or, "The State."]]<br />
::''Main article: [[Ryukyu shobun]]''<br />
Conditions changed dramatically for the kingdom in the 1850s, as they did for Japan as well. Commodore [[Matthew Perry]] was but one of a number of Westerners who made landfall in the Ryukyus around this time, seeking trade and diplomatic relations. Perry in fact signed treaties with the royal government in Ryukyu before ever traveling to Japan.<br />
<br />
The years following the [[1868]] [[Meiji Restoration]] brought drastic changes within Japan, and for the kingdom in turn. The kingdom was briefly transformed into "Okinawa [[han]]", before the ''han'' were [[abolition of the han|abolished]] entirely in [[1871]]. The dissolution of Satsuma han brought the end of Ryukyu's vassal relationship. The kingdom itself was dissolved eight years later, in [[1879]], "Okinawa han" becoming Okinawa Prefecture and the royal family being incorporated into the new Western-style Japanese [[kazoku|aristocracy]]. [[Sho Tai|Shô Tai]], the last king of Ryukyu, was brought to [[Tokyo]] from Shuri, along with his family, and made a Marquis. The vast cultural, educational, and social changes which swept Japan in the [[Meiji period]] came to Okinawa later and more slowly. By the turn of the 20th century, however, assimilation efforts were well underway, aimed at transforming Okinawa, and its inhabitants, into part of a single homogeneous Japanese nation.<br />
<br />
==List of Kings of Ryûkyû==<br />
<br />
In China, in the case of natural succession, it was usual to consider a ruler's reign as starting the year after the death or resignation of his predecessor. This way of dating was often used in the traditional histories of Ryukyu. <ref>For instance, the Chuzan Seikan 中山世鑑of 1650 gives the accession year 御即位 of Shô Hashi as 1422, the year after his father's death. He died in the "18th year of his reign" in 1439, and his son's accession year was 1440.</ref> The list below, based on Matayoshi (1988), follows this convention, which is the one generally, though not universally, used.<br />
<br />
For [[Year dates|dating years]], records from the kingdom period normally use Chinese eras, though in some particular cases Japanese eras, together with the [[sexagenary cycle]], though in private records the cycle alone might be used. Years were not dated by the regnal years of kings. However, modern Okinawan historians often use regnal years in their writing, usually using the convention above. So the year Shô Hashi 1 usually indicates 1422, and Shô Chû 1 usually indicates 1440.<br />
<br />
<br />
#[[Sho Shisho|Shô Shishô (尚思紹) ]] (r.[[1406]]–[[1421]])<br />
#[[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi (尚巴志) ]] (r.[[1422]]–[[1439]])<br />
#[[Sho Chu|Shô Chû (尚忠) ]] (r.[[1440]]–[[1444]])<br />
#[[Sho Shitatsu|Shô Shitatsu (尚思達) ]] (r.[[1445]]–[[1449]])<br />
#[[Sho Kinpuku|Shô Kinpuku (尚金福) ]] (r.[[1450]]–[[1453]])<br />
#[[Sho Taikyu|Shô Taikyû (尚泰久) ]] (r.[[1454]]–[[1460]])<br />
#[[Sho Toku|Shô Toku (尚徳) ]] (r.[[1461]]–[[1469]])<br />
#[[Sho En|Shô En (尚円) ]] (r.[[1470]]–[[1476]])<br />
#[[Sho Seni|Shô Sen'i (尚宣威) ]] (r.[[1477]])<br />
#[[Sho Shin|Shô Shin (尚真) ]] (r.[[1477]]–[[1526]])<br />
#[[Sho Sei (尚清)|Shô Sei (尚清) ]] (r.[[1527]]–[[1555]])<br />
#[[Sho Gen|Shô Gen (尚元) ]] (r.[[1556]]–[[1572]])<br />
#[[Sho Ei|Shô Ei (尚永) ]] (r.[[1573]]–[[1588]])<br />
#[[Sho Nei|Shô Nei (尚寧) ]] (r.[[1589]]–[[1620]])<br />
#[[Sho Ho|Shô Hô (尚豊) ]] (r.[[1621]]–[[1640]])<br />
#[[Sho Ken|Shô Ken (尚賢) ]] (r.[[1641]]–[[1647]])<br />
#[[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu (尚質) ]] (r.[[1648]]–[[1668]])<br />
#[[Sho Tei|Shô Tei (尚貞) ]] (r.[[1669]]–[[1709]])<br />
#[[Sho Eki|Shô Eki (尚益) ]] (r.[[1710]]–[[1712]])<br />
#[[Sho Kei|Shô Kei (尚敬) ]] (r.[[1713]]–[[1751]])<br />
#[[Sho Boku|Shô Boku (尚穆) ]] (r.[[1752]]–[[1794]])<br />
#[[Sho On|Shô On (尚温) ]] (r.[[1795]]–[[1802]])<br />
#[[Sho Sei (尚成)|Shô Sei (尚成) ]] (r.[[1803]])<br />
#[[Sho Ko (尚灝)|Shô Kô (尚灝) ]] (r.[[1804]]–[[1834]])<br />
#[[Sho Iku|Shô Iku (尚育) ]] (r.[[1835]]–[[1847]])<br />
#[[Sho Tai|Shô Tai (尚泰) ]] (r.[[1848]]–[[1872]])<br />
<br />
==Notes & References==<br />
*[[Hamashita Takeshi|Hamashita, Takeshi]]. 沖縄入門 (''Okinawa nyuumon''). Tokyo: Chikumashobou (筑摩書房), 2000.<br />
*[[George Kerr|Kerr, George]]. ''Okinawa: the History of an Island People.'' (revised ed.) Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2000. <br />
*[[Gregory Smits|Smits, Gregory]]. ''Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999.<br />
*Yokoyama Manabu 横山学, ''Ryûkyû koku shisetsu torai no kenkyû'' 琉球国使節渡来の研究, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (1987).<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Government of the Ryukyu Kingdom|Government of the Ryûkyû Kingdom]]<br />
*[[Ryukyuan court ranks]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ryukyu|*]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Ryukyu&diff=39307Kingdom of Ryukyu2018-07-29T07:46:30Z<p>Bethetsu: /* List of Kings of Ryûkyû */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Shuri-seiden.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The rebuilt Seiden (main hall) of [[Shuri castle]], as it appears today]]<br />
[[File:King Sho En.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A [[ogo-e|posthumous official royal portrait]] of King [[Sho En|Shô En]]]]<br />
*''Existence: [[1429]]-[[1879]]''<br />
*''Territory: most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]]''<br />
*''[[Kokudaka]]: 89,086 (1610);<ref>As of a [[1610]] land survey. By [[1634]], this amount was counted as part of the ''kokudaka'' of Satsuma han.</ref> 94,230 (after 1727)<ref name=kokudaka>Tomiyama Kazuyuki, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” Ishihara Masahide et al (eds.), ''Self-determinable Development of Small Islands'', Singapore: Springer Publishing (2016), 63.; ''Shimazu ke rekidai seido'' (vol. 14, item #803), ''Kagoshima ken shiryô: Satsuma han hôrei shiryô shû 1'', Kagoshima: Reimeikan (2004), 510. While this figure represents the ''kokudaka'' of the islands administered by the kingdom, i.e. those from Okinawa Island in the north to the Sakishimas in the south, the Shimazu and the Tokugawa shogunate officially considered the production of the Amami Islands - administered by Kagoshima but still regarded as the territory of the kingdom - to be included in the kingdom's ''kokudaka'', for a grand total of 123,700 ''koku''. Akamine, 69-70.</ref><br />
*''Capital: [[Shuri]]''<br />
*''Kings: First & Second [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]''<br />
*''Japanese'': 琉球王国 ''(Ryuukyuu-ou-koku)''<br />
<br />
The Kingdom of Ryûkyû encompassed and ruled over most of the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryûkyû Islands]], which stretch between [[Kyushu|Kyûshû]] and Taiwan, from [[1429]] to [[1879]]. <br />
<br />
Ruled by the [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]] of kings from [[Shuri Castle]], on the island of [[Okinawa]], the kingdom was formed by the unification in 1419-1429 of the island, which had been previously divided into [[Sanzan period|three kingdoms]]. It was an independent state, though a [[tribute|tributary]] to Ming China, until the [[1609]] [[invasion of Ryukyu|invasion of Ryûkyû]] by forces of Japan's [[Satsuma han]]. From then until its dissolution in [[1879]], the kingdom served as a semi-independent vassal state under Satsuma, and continued its tributary relationship with China.<br />
<br />
The kingdom's territory expanded over the course of the 15th-16th centuries, as the islands of the archipelago were absorbed into the kingdom one by one; after 1624, [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and a number of its neighboring islands were annexed by Satsuma han. The Amami Islands today remain part of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]] while the rest of the Ryûkyûs constitute [[Okinawa Prefecture]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Origins===<br />
Prior to [[1314]] or so, the Ryûkyû Islands were controlled by a myriad of small chiefdoms; those on the main island of Okinawa were loosely united under a "king". [[Tamagusuku]], who ascended to this post in 1314, lacked the charisma, leadership qualities, and skills to maintain this unity, and the island fractured into three polities<ref>For the sake of convenience and simplicity, most sources in English refer to these as "kingdoms" and their leaders as "kings", though most are also keen to point out that the political structures of the time continued to far more closely resemble chiefdoms. Though the Chinese character for "king" (王) is used in both Chinese and Japanese sources of the period, it is perhaps most accurate to not consider these rulers "kings" until sometime around the unification of Okinawa in 1419-1429.</ref>: [[Nanzan]] in the south of the island, [[Hokuzan]] in the north, and [[Chuzan|Chûzan]] in the center.<br />
<br />
Over the course of the next hundred years, the three polities consolidated their power, build a great many fortresses (''[[gusuku]]''), and expanded through trade. Chûzan entered into tributary relations with Ming China in [[1372]], the other two polities following suit within the next decade, and began to receive royal [[investiture]] from China as well. The three polities expanded their territory in this period as well, slowly acquiring the other nearby islands either as tributary states or as outright annexed territories, and entering into diplomatic and trade relations with Japan and Korea, as well as with a number of Southeast Asian polities.<ref name=gunn219>Geoffrey Gunn, ''History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000-1800'', Hong Kong University Press (2011), 219.</ref><br />
<br />
A local lord (''[[anji]]'') by the name of Hashi rose to power at the beginning of the 15th century, and overthrew the king of Chûzan, [[Bunei]], around 1407. Hashi originally set up his father as king, but continued to wield power behind the scenes, succeeding his father in 1422. The two received formal investiture from the Ming Court, and were granted the surname Shô (尚, "Shang" in Chinese); father and son thus became [[Sho Shisho|Shô Shisho]] and [[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi]] respectively, marking the beginning of the first [[Sho Dynasty|Shô Dynasty]]. Under their leadership, Chûzan conquered Hokuzan in 1419 and Nanzan in 1429, uniting the island of Okinawa, establishing the Kingdom of Ryûkyû, and moving the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]].<br />
<br />
===Independence===<br />
[[File:Bridge of Nations Bell.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A replica of the ''Bankoku shinryô no kane'', or [[Bridge of Nations Bell]], hanging at Shuri castle. The inscription speaks of Ryûkyû as a bridge between all nations]]<br />
[[File:Shureimon.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Shureimon gate to Shuri castle, bearing a plaque reading "Nation of Propriety"]]<br />
[[File:Shiseibyo-gate.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The main gate to the [[Shiseibyo|Confucian temple]] in [[Kumemura]]]]<br />
Despite its tiny land area, the kingdom came to play a crucial role in regional trade networks as a transshipping point. Much of the tribute goods paid by the kingdom to China came originally from Southeast Asia. Hundreds of Ryukyuan vessels, many of them acquired from the Ming, but operating on behalf of the Ryukyuan royal government, traversed the seas, making port in China, Korea, Japan, and at least eight different ports across Southeast Asia, engaging not only in trade but also in diplomatic exchanges.<ref>Records show a number of instances of Ryûkyû requesting seagoing vessels from Ming and from Siam, explicitly for the purpose of facilitating maritime trade activities. Some scholars have suggested this indicates that Ryukyuan vessels were themselves not capable of traversing such vast distances safely or effectively. Chan, Ying Kit. “A Bridge between Myriad Lands: The Ryukyu Kingdom and Ming China (1372-1526).” MA Thesis, National University of Singapore, 2010, 58n147, 60. http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/20602.</ref> Goods from Japan consisted primarily of precious metals and objects of fine art; the kingdom acquired primarily medicinal herbs, ceramics, and textiles from Korea and China. These were then exchanged in Luzon, Siam, Java (Sunda), Melaka, Palembang, Sumatra, Pattani, and Annam for a variety of spices, aromatic woods, skins, ivory, and other animal products, and sugar. Ryukyuan ships traveling to Southeast Asia were typically manned by entirely Chinese crews, with Chinese navigators, though they were always captained by native Ryukyuans, with the exception of missions to Java.<ref>Gunn, 220.</ref><br />
<br />
Annam was perhaps the greatest of Ryûkyû's Southeast Asian trading partners, with a greater number of Ryukyuan ships traveling to Annam in the 16th century than to any other destination outside of China. Eleven other destinations also saw more Ryukyuan ships in that period than Japan did.<ref>McNally, 96.</ref> Siam, meanwhile, was the only Southeast Asian polity to which Ryûkyû sold [[sulfur]]. Interactions with Siam began as early as the 1380s, via Chinese intermediaries, but in the 15th century came to be handled more directly by Ryukyuan merchants. With perhaps only one exception, Siamese ships did not travel to Ryûkyû; the trade was conducted entirely on Ryukyuan vessels. Ryûkyû traded with the sultans of Melaka from [[1463]] until [[1511]], when Melaka fell to the Portuguese, and the Ryukyuans diverted their trade activities to Pattani. Records of Ryukyuan activity in Java indicate interactions in [[1430]]-[[1442]], and again in [[1513]]-[[1518]]; unlike in relations with Siam and other regions, in Java and Sumatra local Chinese merchant communities directed the trade with Ryûkyû.<ref>Gunn, 220-221.</ref><br />
<br />
Much of Ryûkyû's trade with Korea in the 15th-16th centuries was conducted by Japanese merchants from [[Hakata]] and [[Sakai]], patronized by various ''daimyô''. Ryukyuan individuals also sometimes traveled themselves to Korea, or elsewhere, aboard these Japanese ships; at times, Japanese ships were able to get better treatment in Korean or other ports if they carried official Ryukyuan envoys. By 1480, however, these Ryukyuan-chartered Japanese trade missions declined significantly, the reputation of their legitimacy having been severely damaged by many Japanese traders falsely claiming to be official representatives of the island kingdom.<ref>Mark McNally, "A King's Legitimacy and a Kingdom's Exceptionality: Ryûkyû's Bankoku Shinryô no Kane of 1458," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6 (2015), 91-92.</ref> Further, after [[1592]], Japanese relations with China and Korea were at a nadir, and so Ryukyuan envoys and trade to Korea traveled via Beijing, and not via Japanese channels.<ref name=gunn219/><br />
<br />
Most sources indicate that, while the majority of the Ryukyuan peasantry were illiterate and led very simple lives, they always had enough to subsist on. The great wealth acquired by the royal government, government officials, aristocrats, and merchants did not spill over into conspicuous prosperity for all, but neither did the government truly oppress or impoverish the peasantry.<br />
<br />
Shô Hashi relocated the capital from [[Urasoe]] to [[Shuri]], nearer to the scholar-bureaucrat center of [[Kumemura]], and the port of [[Naha]], and expanded the ''[[gusuku]]'' (castle) there into a royal palace on the Chinese model. There, he worked to construct a notion of kingship based on the Chinese model, in which the king's rule was seen as legitimate not because of military might, but based on his virtuous character, and on a perception of the king as the benevolent ruler whose virtue united and sustained the kingdom. This discursive project, of constructing in Ryûkyû a Confucian kingdom, was continued by Hashi's successors, and may be said to have reached its full realization under King [[Sho Shin|Shô Shin]], in the first decades of the 16th century.<ref>Chan, 29.</ref><br />
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The bureaucratic and governmental structures of the kingdom, based on those of Chûzan, developed and solidified over the course of the 15th century, following, in many ways, a Chinese model. A complex bureaucracy ran the kingdom, the heads of each branch known collectively as the [[Council of Fifteen]]. The king was of course at the top of the hierarchy, his chief advisor known as the ''[[sessei]]''. After [[1556]], when the mute [[Sho Gen|Shô Gen]] ascended the throne, a council of regents or advisors known as the ''[[Sanshikan]]'' emerged and gradually came to wield significant power, eventually eclipsing the ''sessei''. In these and other ways, the kingdom adopted Confucian & Ming customs, political philosophy, and practices in order to present a discourse of power and legitimacy both to China and other neighbors in the region, and to the Ryukyuan people, through an adoption of the Confucian rhetoric of the benevolent monarch from whom virtue and civilization emanates. Still, the royal court exercised considerable agency in shaping its adoption of Chinese customs and forms as it saw fit, maintaining much indigenous forms and elements as well. While the Chinese system of [[court ranks in China|court ranks]] was adopted, Ryûkyû did so with its own indigenous system of colored robes, hairpins, and [[hachimaki|court caps]] indicating [[Ryukyuan court ranks|court rank]], not adopting the Chinese system entirely. Further, internal government documents were regularly written in ''kana'', in the [[Okinawan language]], not in Chinese; students studying to join the scholar-bureaucracy were educated in Chinese, Japanese, and Okinawan, and in fact from the 17th century onwards, [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] and [[Confucian classics|classic Confucian texts]] were taught largely in Japanese forms, rather than in the original Chinese.<ref>Takatsu Takashi, “Ming Jianyang Prints and the Spread of the Teachings of Zhu Xi to Japan and the Ryukyu Kingdom in the Seventeenth Century,” in Angela Schottenhammer (ed.), ''The East Asian Mediterranean: Maritime Crossroads of Culture'', Harrassowitz Verlag (2008), 263-264.</ref> Chinese ''was'' used in formal communications with Ming (and later Qing) China, but even from quite early on, communications with Japan were written in a Japanese form called ''wayô kanbun'', and not in standard [[classical Chinese]].<ref>Chan, 70.</ref><br />
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The village of Kumemura, a short distance from the capital at Shuri, had been founded in [[1393]] by a number of Chinese scholars, bureaucrats, and craftsmen from Fukien settled there with their families by order of the Ming Court. The town rapidly developed into a center of scholarship and Chinese culture, and came to be something of a training ground for the kingdom's bureaucrats; nearly all of the administrators in the royal government came from Kumemura, and positions were based on showing in royal examinations, rather than purely on birth. A system was also established by which a select few members of the Kumemura community would travel to Fuzhou and Beijing to study. In addition to becoming well-versed in the Chinese classics, and being educated and trained in the ways of a bureaucrat, these students would frequently bring back specific skills or knowledges to be implemented in the kingdom, such as geomancy, navigation, or various craft skills.<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Japanese Buddhist monks became one of the key avenues by which Japanese culture, including [[tea ceremony]], appreciation for tea wares and other Japanese [[pottery|ceramics]], and Japanese poetry and literary classics, was introduced to the Ryukyuan elites. [[Zen]] was the dominant form of [[Buddhism]] patronized by the royal family since its introduction by the Japanese monk [[Zenkan]] in [[1265]]; [[Shingon]] had also been introduced by a Japanese monk in the late 1360s, and a Chinese investiture envoy, [[Chai Shan]], established another major temple in [[1430]]. However, it was under Shô Taikyû (r. [[1454]]-[[1461]]) that Buddhism truly became firmly established and widespread. Shô Taikyû invited [[Kaiin]], a monk from Kyoto's [[Nanzen-ji]], to come and found a number of new temples, and to oversee the construction of a number of [[temple bells]]. Taikyû did not make Buddhism the state religion, but Zen did continue to enjoy a close relationship with the royal family, and Zen monks from Kongô-ji, Hôon-ji, Tennô-ji, Tenkai-ji, [[Tenryu-ji|Tenryû-j]], and Kenzen-ji came to play a particularly prominent role in not only cultural relations, but also political/diplomatic relations between Ryûkyû and Japanese entities such as the Shimazu clan and the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], while relations with other countries continued to be managed by the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats of Kumemura.<ref>Yokoyama, 38, 54.</ref><br />
<br />
King Shô Shin (r. [[1477]]-[[1526]]) is often said to have ruled over a golden age for the kingdom. He solidified and strengthened the power of the king (and of the central royal government more generally), both practically and ideologically. Areas outside of Shuri had previously been ruled by ''anji'', local/regional rulers akin perhaps to feudal lords, with considerable power and autonomy within their lands. Under Shô Shin's predecessors, and especially under Chûzan prior to the unification of the island, ''anji'' wielded considerable power, occasionally even toppling and replacing kings.<ref>As is believed to have happened at least once in Nanzan, as indicated in the ''Ming Taizong shilu''. Chan, 25-26.</ref> The ''anji'' were not fully secure in their power, however, as local elites beneath them could also overthrow their ''anji'' when they perceived him to be politically or spiritually weak; priestesses also wielded considerable local political power.<ref>Chan, 25-26.</ref><br />
<br />
Shô Shin addressed these competing powers by forcing the ''anji'' to reside in Shuri, transforming them into an aristocratic-bureaucrat class, and reorganizing their lands into ''[[magiri]]'' (districts)<ref>Though this term may have previously existed, it now became a more formalized unit of political geography as delineated by Shuri, and governed by those appointed from Shuri.</ref>. Each ''magiri'' consisted of a number of villages known either as ''mura'' or ''shima''; all together, the ''magiri'' comprised the "rural" or "provincial" portion of the kingdom, ''inaka no hô'' in modern Japanese, in contrast to Shuri, Kume, [[Tomari]], and Naha, the four "towns" (''machi'') which comprised the "urban" or "metropolitan" areas of the kingdom.<ref name=nahacity>Gallery labels, Naha City Museum of History.</ref> Officials not of an ''anji'' ("warlord") background were appointed by the royal court to govern these districts; thus, the power of the ''anji'' to act as independent feudal states was removed, and put into the hands of administrators who were reliant on the royal court for the ability to continue to hold that post. By the end of Shô Shin's reign, all military forces in the kingdom were under his command, rather than under the command of individual regional lords; regional forces were now known as ''magiri gun'', rather than ''anji gun'', associating them with the districts, and not with the regional lords. Shô Shin also expanded the reach of the kingdom by sending military forces to conquer or subjugate other islands, sometimes coming into conflict with Japanese forces from [[Satsuma province]] seeking to expand their influence south into the Ryukyus.<ref name=pacifism>Gregory Smits. "[http://www.japanfocus.org/-Gregory-Smits/3409 Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism]." ''The Asia-Pacific Journal'' 37-3-10 (September 13, 2010).</ref> <br />
<br />
Shô Shin and his predecessors also worked to consolidate royal power, and weaken the threat of rivalry from the ''anji'', by developing royal monopolies on maritime trade. They acquired oceangoing vessels from the Ming, monopolized [[lacquerware]] production, and maintained royal sources of various other goods, including [[Ryukyuan horses|horses]] and [[sulphur]];<ref>Chan, 58.</ref> much later, in the 1680s, the royal government ordered all [[Ryukyuan pottery|potters]] in the kingdom to relocate to the [[Tsuboya pottery|Tsuboya]] neighborhood of Naha, thus solidifying a royal monopoly on pottery as well.<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum.; Gallery labels, "The Tsuboya-yaki region" and "Okinawan pottery," Gallery 4: Minzoku, National Museum of Japanese History.</ref><br />
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Shô Shin also addressed the power of the priestesses by establishing a new religious hierarchy, with his sister [[Utuchitunumuigani]] as the first ''[[kikoe-ogimi|kikôe-ôgimi]]'', spiritual protector of the king and kingdom, and head of a hierarchy overseeing all ''[[noro]]'' and ''[[yuta]]'' priestesses in the kingdom. Though quite powerful still, the priestess establishment was now contained within the kingdom's institutions, and was less of a separate, independent, autonomous, power unto itself.<br />
<br />
Beginning in the 15th century, and continuing well into the 16th, the kingdom expanded its control over other islands in the Ryûkyû chain, both to the north and to the south. King [[Sho Toku|Shô Toku]] personally led an invasion force to [[Kikai-jima]] in [[1466]], and forces from the kingdom were dispatched to [[Kumejima]] in [[1506]]. Meanwhile, in 1500, [[Oyake Akahachi]], the dominant power on [[Ishigaki Island]], rose up in rebellion against the Shuri government, refusing to pay taxes or [[tribute]] to Shuri, and also making efforts to extend his own power over other nearby islands; Shuri's successful suppression of this rebellion, with the aid of [[Nakasone Toyomiya]] of [[Hateruma Island]] and other local elites, was followed immediately by Shuri appointing local "chiefs" or "heads" (''kashira''), many of them already elites native to the [[Miyako Islands|Miyako]] or [[Yaeyama Islands]], as official administrators recognized by, and in service to, the kingdom. A system of high priestesses, called ''[[oamu]]'', were also dispatched to the various southern islands. Meanwhile, the kingdom made efforts to expand to the north, where it encountered considerably greater resistance. Battles between the kingdom's forces and local resistance on [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] and other parts of the [[Amami Islands]] continued well into the 1550s and 1560s. Ryukyuan forces also clashed with samurai forces from southern Kyushu, who were pushing southward. The Shimazu clan attacked Amami Ôshima in 1571, the same year as the island finally formally submitted to Shuri's authority, as part of an ultimately abortive attempt to conquer the entire kingdom. The furthest north Ryukyuan forces ever managed to attain territory was on [[Gajashima]], one of the [[Tokara Islands]] to the north of Amami. These expansionist efforts were aimed chiefly at consolidating power, and securing access to trade and resources. The kingdom made local elites dependent on Shuri for their legitimacy and authority, and required a certain amount of tax or tribute payments, along with certain other forms of service, but otherwise gave the Miyakos and Yaeyamas, as well as the Amami Islands, considerable leeway in managing their own affairs and maintaining their own cultures.<ref>Smits, "Examining the Myth of Ryukyuan Pacifism"; Smits, "Rethinking Ryukyu," ''International Journal of Okinawan Studies'' 6:1 (2015), 7.</ref><br />
<br />
The kingdom's booming trade declined around the 1570s, as the seas came to be dominated by other powers. Spanish and Portuguese galleons arrived around the mid-16th century, followed by the agents of the [[British East India Company|English]] and [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] [[East India Company|East India Companies]] at the beginning of the 17th. Meanwhile, Ming China lifted its bans on Chinese trade with, and in, Southeast Asia, in [[1567]], and Japan under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] began to engage in licensed trade under the ''[[shuinsen]]'' system after around [[1582]]. The dispatch of Ryukyuan trading ships to Siam in [[1570]] was to be the last act of direct Ryukyuan involvement in maritime trade in Southeast Asia.<ref>''Ryûkyû ôchô no bi'' 琉球王朝の美. Hikone Castle Museum 彦根城博物館. Hikone, 1993. p75.</ref><br />
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The total population of the kingdom at this time stood around 100,000.<ref>McNally, 99.</ref><br />
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===Invasion and Vassalage===<br />
Around 1590, the royal government was ordered by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, through agents of the [[Shimazu family]] of Satsuma, to provide troops, weapons, and other munitions to aid in his planned [[Korean invasions|invasions of Korea]]. King [[Sho Nei|Shô Nei]] deferred, and went beyond that, informing the Ming Court of Hideyoshi's plans by way of a letter from [[Jana ueekata]] in [[1591]],<ref>Gallery labels, "Kuninda - Ryûkyû to Chûgoku no kakehashi," special exhibit, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, Sept 2014.</ref> but ultimately sent a little over half the supplies the Shimazu demanded, by way of protecting the kingdom from violent repercussions.<ref>Akamine, 60.</ref> Still, this was but one in a series of instances in which the kingdom refused or ignored requests or demands from the Shimazu and Hideyoshi, or was otherwise less than fully cooperative in the 1570s-1600s, inspired perhaps in part by a fear of the increased threat of Ryukyuan ships being attacked by pirates.<ref>Kuroshima Satoru 黒島敏, ''Ryûkyû ôkoku to Sengoku daimyô'' 琉球王国と戦国大名, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (2016), 22.</ref> Still, it was in connection with the fact that the Shimazu communicated with Ryûkyû, and demonstrated some sort of special relationship, that Toyotomi Hideyoshi formally recognized Ryûkyû in [[1592]] as having some position within the feudal order, under Satsuma. Some scholars point to this as the origin, or otherwise a key element, of Satsuma's claims to authority over Ryûkyû.<ref>Akamine, 59-61.</ref><br />
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Hideyoshi died in 1598, and was replaced as secular, martial, ruler of Japan a few years later by [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]]. Shô Nei ignored demands that he formally recognize the new [[Tokugawa shogunate]], and that his kingdom serve as intermediary to help the Tokugawa (re)establish formal relations with the Ming. In 1600, the shogunate returned a number of Ryukyuan castaways from [[Date clan]] territory in [[Tohoku region|Tôhoku]], and in 1605 the shogunate again returned a number of castaways, and much of their cargo, albeit while confiscating a portion of the cargo. Still, the Ryukyuan court issued no formal expression or mission of gratitude.<ref>Takara Kurayoshi 高良倉吉 and Tomiyama Kazuyuki 豊見山和行, ''Ryûkyû / Okinawa to kaijô no michi'' 琉球・沖縄と海上の道, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (2005), 82.</ref><br />
<br />
Citing these incidents, and a broader narrative of Ryukyuan failure to pay proper respects,<ref>The term employed by Takara Kurayoshi and Tomiyama Kazuyuki is ''heimon'' 聘問, meaning to visit someone & bring gifts in order to pay respects. Takara and Tomiyama, 82.</ref> the Shimazu house then requested permission from Tokugawa Ieyasu to launch a punitive mission. Permission was granted in 1606, and the [[invasion of Ryukyu]] was undertaken in [[1609]]. After a few battles on smaller outlying islands, the samurai forces seized Shuri Castle and took Shô Nei, along with a number of his chief officials, captive. All were brought to Japan, where they met with Ieyasu and his son, the reigning [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Hidetada]], and were forced to submit to a number of demands and conditions. The kingdom became a vassal state under the Shimazu, and was forced to pay taxes to Satsuma on a regular basis, as well as sending regular missions to Kagoshima, among several other obligations. The crown prince of the kingdom was to visit Kagoshima each year to formally reenact rituals of subordination or allegiance; envoys also traveled to Kagoshima on a number of other occasions, including as a "New Year's mission" (''nentôshi'') which included a rotation of Ryukyuan officials resident in the castle-town, and on special occasions such as the birth, marriage, succession, or death of a Shimazu lord.<ref name=tomi63/> A land survey conducted in 1610-1611 determined the ''[[kokudaka]]'' of the kingdom to be 89,086 ''[[koku]]'', a number which was revised upwards to just over 94,230 ''koku'' in [[1727]],<ref name=kokudaka/> of which the kingdom was permitted to keep 50,000 ''koku''.<ref name=akamine68>Akamine, 68.</ref> Based on this assessment, the kingdom was obliged to pay a certain amount of regular annual tax (''shinobose mai'') to Satsuma; originally paid in kind (i.e. in various products/commodities, mainly [[Ryukyuan textiles|textiles]]), this tax obligation was shifted to [[silver]], and then to rice by [[1620]]. The amount varied until [[1660]], at which time it became roughly stable; around [[1870]] the kingdom was paying just over 7,600 ''koku'' in annual tax, plus an additional 1,000 ''koku'' in supplemental tax.<ref name=tomi63>One year later, in [[1871]], following the [[abolition of the han]], Satsuma han was abolished but the kingdom was still obliged to pay tax to [[Kagoshima prefecture]], in the amount of 11,777 ''koku'' (including transportation costs, and with some 970,000 ''[[Japanese Measurements|kin]]'' of [[sugar]] substituted for 3,680 ''koku'' of rice. Tomiyama, “Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy with Japan and the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” 63.</ref> From [[1636]] onwards,<ref>Tomiyama, "Ryukyu Kingdom Diplomacy," 56.</ref> the kingdom was also obligated to provide Satsuma each year with a ''Kirishitan shûmon aratamechô'', a register of religious affiliation of everyone living in the kingdom, to help ensure there were no [[Christianity|Christians]],<ref>People were not required to register with a Buddhist temple, however, as they were in Japan.</ref> and to organize all the kingdom's subjects into ''[[goningumi]]'' - groups of five households which would be responsible for enforcing one another's lawful behavior. Satsuma was also charged with maintaining a coast guard which would prevent foreigners (specifically, Westerners and especially Christian missionaries) from entering Ryûkyû.<ref>This was seen as a kind of "house obligation" (''[[ieyaku]]'') of maritime defense service, of the same category as [[Saga han|Saga]] and [[Fukuoka han|Fukuoka domains']] obligations to guard the port of [[Nagasaki]]. Satsuma and [[Tsushima han]] had served similar functions during the [[Muromachi period]] as well, guarding against events in Korea or Ryûkyû which might threaten Japan. Akamine, 66-67, 73.</ref> To further guard against foreigners entering the kingdom, a system of signal fires called ''fiitatimoo'' was established, along with a network of swift boats called ''tobifune'' in Japanese, which could inform Okinawa of any sightings or shipwrecks in the outer islands.<ref name=akamine68/> <br />
<br />
The king was restored to his castle and his kingdom in [[1611]], and was returned to power, though only within strict limits set by the Shimazu. In addition, while the kingdom retained the Ryukyus from Okinawa south (to the [[Sakishima Islands]] and [[Yonaguni]]), the [[Amami Islands]] and all other islands in the chain north of Okinawa Island proper were placed under the direct administration of Satsuma, though Satsuma and the shogunate both continued, through the end of the Edo period, to consider those islands part of the territory of the kingdom.<ref>Akamine, 69-70.</ref> A vassal state, Ryukyu was not considered an integral part of Japan until it was formally annexed as Okinawa Prefecture in 1879; while the provinces of Japan were regarded as ''takoku'' (他国, "other lands"), Ryukyu was considered ''ikoku'' (異国, "foreign lands"), along with China, Korea, Holland, and the rest of the world. However, ''[[Nanto zatsuwa|Nantô zatsuwa]]'', a Japanese text published in the 1850s, reveals that Ryukyuan people continued to travel between Okinawa and Amami, and to engage directly in trade in pottery, marine goods, and other products, despite the ostensible "national" boundaries (i.e. with travel to Amami, as part of Satsuma's territory, now being "foreign" travel and therefore theoretically subject to more strict control).<ref>Gallery labels, Okinawa Prefectural Museum, August 2013.</ref><br />
<br />
The king remained on his throne, and the royal court continued on much as it had, both in terms of political and administrative activities, and in terms of court rituals. Though Satsuma initially imposed stronger and more direct interference into Ryûkyû's governance, by the 1620s it began to loosen its involvement, and allowed Ryûkyû increased autonomy.<ref>Akamine, 79.</ref> The [[scholar-aristocracy of Ryukyu|scholar-aristocracy of Ryûkyû]] remained intact through the Satsuma invasion, continuing to pass down ranks and titles, and to occupy government posts, administering the kingdom in much the same fashion as they had previously. Practices and processes evolved and changed over the course of the early modern period, with a few developments in the 17th century having particularly significant impacts, but these were in some respects more natural developments, and not something that happened suddenly in connection with the Satsuma invasion. The aristocracy was divided more starkly from the commoners/villagers shortly after the invasion, and this was compounded, or solidified, by the implementation in [[1689]] of a system of family genealogies known as ''[[kafu]]'' or ''keizu''. Aristocratic families maintained books recording their family's aristocratic lineage, with another copy being kept by the court. Those who had such records of their lineage were known as ''keimochi'' ("possessing genealogy") and were the aristocracy, while those who lacked such records were ''mukei'' ("lacking genealogy"), and were commoners. Still, not all commoners were villagers or "peasants" (J: ''hyakushô''); many were "town commoners" (J: ''machi hyakushô''), and by the end of the early modern period, some town commoners had been able to purchase aristocratic status, and to begin new lineages.<ref name=nahacity/><br />
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For the remainder of Japan's [[Edo period]] after the 1609 invasion, the kingdom served two masters, ostensibly independent, though a vassal to Satsuma and a tributary to China. As formal relations between Japan and China were severed, extensive efforts were made to hide Japan's control or influence over Ryukyu from the Chinese Court. If Beijing believed Ryukyu to be a part of Japan, it would have likely severed ties with Ryukyu as well, denying the kingdom and the shogunate not only a source of income and foreign goods through trade, but also a source of intelligence on events in the outside world, particularly China. Foreign trade, along with tributary missions and student exchange to China continued throughout this period, though overseen by Japanese authorities, and controlled so as to best benefit Satsuma and the shogunate, not the kingdom itself. Ryukyuans were forbidden from speaking Japanese, dressing in Japanese fashion, or otherwise revealing the Japanese influence upon them; the very few who were allowed to go abroad were to speak Chinese and to espouse a combination of native Ryukyuan and Chinese culture. This was not only policy for official envoys and official communications, but was circulated throughout the kingdom, instructing commoners and villagers (peasants) similarly, that if they were to be shipwrecked or castaway in China, for example, they should not speak of relations with Japan, or reveal their own familiarity with Japanese language or culture.<ref>[[Watanabe Miki]], "Ryûkyû kara mita Shinchô" 琉球から見た清朝, in Okada Hidehiro (ed.), ''Shinchô to ha nani ka'' 清朝とは何か, Fujiwara Shoten (2009), 257.</ref> Great efforts were made whenever Chinese envoys came to Ryûkyû to hide signs of Japanese influence from view, and a fiction was maintained that any signs of Japanese influence remaining were due to Ryukyuan trade and contact with the nearby [[Tokara Islands|Takarajima]], and not with mainland Japan.<ref>Matsuda Mitsugu, The Government of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, 1609-1872, Yui Publishing (2001), 60n34.</ref><br />
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The kingdom became a valuable source of sugar, Chinese luxury goods, and certain other goods and commodities to Japan; Satsuma imported these goods, or claimed them as tax payments, and then sold them through [[goyo shonin|merchants officially associated with the domain]] in [[Kyoto]]. However, the kingdom quickly became dependent on Satsuma for silver, copper, tin, and various other goods and commodities, both for its own use, and for use as tribute goods to send to China. Sugar came to be used as one of the chief forms of collateral for such loans.<ref>Akamine, 74-75.</ref><br />
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The kingdom became in various ways a tool for both the Shimazu and the shogunate, not only for purely economic benefit, but also to political ends. Ryukyuan students and embassies to Beijing provided unparalleled intelligence on Chinese matters which could not be gained from Korea or from merchants at [[Nagasaki]], who largely knew only of coastal and maritime matters. Tributary missions from Ryukyu to [[Edo]] were accompanied by great pomp and circumstance, and considerable entourages, though subsumed within the much larger Shimazu party making its obligatory ''[[sankin kotai|sankin kôtai]]'' journey to the capital. The enforced exoticism of the Ryukyuan embassies reinforced for the shogunate and the Shimazu family both the notion that an entire foreign kingdom submitted to their authority. The shogunate made use of this to consolidate perceptions of the legitimacy of its authority, while the Shimazu used it as leverage to gain higher [[court rank]] and to negotiate for the bending of laws and taxation.<br />
<br />
Still, despite the overlordship of the Shimazu, the royal government enjoyed some flexibility in instituting domestic polities and reforms. Two governmental officials are of particular significance. [[Sho Shoken|Shô Shôken]], ''sessei'' from 1666-1673, wrote the first history of Ryukyu and helped institute a number of key reforms. He cut down on royal and aristocrati extravagance, in order to streamline expenses and ensure greater prosperity for the kingdom. He also suppressed the political influence and cultural importance of the [[yuta|priestesses]] of the native religion and cut down on royal involvement in many traditional rituals. This served to not only cut down on extravagance, but also was intended to help suppress elements of Ryukyuan culture which could be seen as backwards by China and Japan. [[Sai On]], royal regent roughly a century later, in the 1750s, continued and re-enacted many of Shô Shôken's policies, and went further, making considerable reforms to the kingdom's domestic economy, particularly in agriculture and forestry. His reforms helped the kingdom recover from a series of fires, famines, and other difficulties.<br />
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===Dissolution===<br />
[[Image:Meiji-naminoue.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Statue of Emperor Meiji at [[Naminoue Shrine]] in [[Okinawa]], identified as ''kokka'', or, "The State."]]<br />
::''Main article: [[Ryukyu shobun]]''<br />
Conditions changed dramatically for the kingdom in the 1850s, as they did for Japan as well. Commodore [[Matthew Perry]] was but one of a number of Westerners who made landfall in the Ryukyus around this time, seeking trade and diplomatic relations. Perry in fact signed treaties with the royal government in Ryukyu before ever traveling to Japan.<br />
<br />
The years following the [[1868]] [[Meiji Restoration]] brought drastic changes within Japan, and for the kingdom in turn. The kingdom was briefly transformed into "Okinawa [[han]]", before the ''han'' were [[abolition of the han|abolished]] entirely in [[1871]]. The dissolution of Satsuma han brought the end of Ryukyu's vassal relationship. The kingdom itself was dissolved eight years later, in [[1879]], "Okinawa han" becoming Okinawa Prefecture and the royal family being incorporated into the new Western-style Japanese [[kazoku|aristocracy]]. [[Sho Tai|Shô Tai]], the last king of Ryukyu, was brought to [[Tokyo]] from Shuri, along with his family, and made a Marquis. The vast cultural, educational, and social changes which swept Japan in the [[Meiji period]] came to Okinawa later and more slowly. By the turn of the 20th century, however, assimilation efforts were well underway, aimed at transforming Okinawa, and its inhabitants, into part of a single homogeneous Japanese nation.<br />
<br />
==List of Kings of Ryûkyû==<br />
#[[Sho Shisho|Shô Shishô (尚思紹) ]] (r.[[1406]]–[[1421]])<br />
#[[Sho Hashi|Shô Hashi (尚巴志) ]] (r.[[1422]]–[[1439]])<br />
#[[Sho Chu|Shô Chû (尚忠) ]] (r.[[1440]]–[[1444]])<br />
#[[Sho Shitatsu|Shô Shitatsu (尚思達) ]] (r.[[1445]]–[[1449]])<br />
#[[Sho Kinpuku|Shô Kinpuku (尚金福) ]] (r.[[1450]]–[[1453]])<br />
#[[Sho Taikyu|Shô Taikyû (尚泰久) ]] (r.[[1454]]–[[1460]])<br />
#[[Sho Toku|Shô Toku (尚徳) ]] (r.[[1461]]–[[1469]])<br />
#[[Sho En|Shô En (尚円) ]] (r.[[1470]]–[[1476]])<br />
#[[Sho Seni|Shô Sen'i (尚宣威) ]] (r.[[1477]])<br />
#[[Sho Shin|Shô Shin (尚真) ]] (r.[[1477]]–[[1526]])<br />
#[[Sho Sei (尚清)|Shô Sei (尚清) ]] (r.[[1527]]–[[1555]])<br />
#[[Sho Gen|Shô Gen (尚元) ]] (r.[[1556]]–[[1572]])<br />
#[[Sho Ei|Shô Ei (尚永) ]] (r.[[1573]]–[[1588]])<br />
#[[Sho Nei|Shô Nei (尚寧) ]] (r.[[1589]]–[[1620]])<br />
#[[Sho Ho|Shô Hô (尚豊) ]] (r.[[1621]]–[[1640]])<br />
#[[Sho Ken|Shô Ken (尚賢) ]] (r.[[1641]]–[[1647]])<br />
#[[Sho Shitsu|Shô Shitsu (尚質) ]] (r.[[1648]]–[[1668]])<br />
#[[Sho Tei|Shô Tei (尚貞) ]] (r.[[1669]]–[[1709]])<br />
#[[Sho Eki|Shô Eki (尚益) ]] (r.[[1710]]–[[1712]])<br />
#[[Sho Kei|Shô Kei (尚敬) ]] (r.[[1713]]–[[1751]])<br />
#[[Sho Boku|Shô Boku (尚穆) ]] (r.[[1752]]–[[1794]])<br />
#[[Sho On|Shô On (尚温) ]] (r.[[1795]]–[[1802]])<br />
#[[Sho Sei (尚成)|Shô Sei (尚成) ]] (r.[[1803]])<br />
#[[Sho Ko (尚灝)|Shô Kô (尚灝) ]] (r.[[1804]]–[[1834]])<br />
#[[Sho Iku|Shô Iku (尚育) ]] (r.[[1835]]–[[1847]])<br />
#[[Sho Tai|Shô Tai (尚泰) ]] (r.[[1848]]–[[1872]])<br />
<br />
==Notes & References==<br />
*[[Hamashita Takeshi|Hamashita, Takeshi]]. 沖縄入門 (''Okinawa nyuumon''). Tokyo: Chikumashobou (筑摩書房), 2000.<br />
*[[George Kerr|Kerr, George]]. ''Okinawa: the History of an Island People.'' (revised ed.) Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2000. <br />
*[[Gregory Smits|Smits, Gregory]]. ''Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999.<br />
*Yokoyama Manabu 横山学, ''Ryûkyû koku shisetsu torai no kenkyû'' 琉球国使節渡来の研究, Tokyo: Yoshikawa kôbunkan (1987).<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Government of the Ryukyu Kingdom|Government of the Ryûkyû Kingdom]]<br />
*[[Ryukyuan court ranks]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ryukyu|*]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Nagurumi_castle&diff=34171Nagurumi castle2016-06-05T12:42:05Z<p>Bethetsu: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>*''Japanese:''名胡桃城''(Nagurumi-jô)''<br />
*''Destroyed: After [[1590]]''<br />
*''Location: [[Kozuke province|Kôzuke province]]''<br />
<br />
Nagurumi castle is located on a bluff on the west bank of the Tone River, about four km north of [[Numata castle]]. It was near two of the three [[highways]] between the [[Kanto|Kantô]] plain and [[Echigo province]], the Mikuni highway and the Shimizu highway.<br />
<br />
The Tone District is surrounded to the south by Mt. Akagi, to the north by the Tanigawa Range as well as by mountains on the east and west. From the [[Kamakura Period]] to the [[Sengoku Period]] it was ruled by the [[Numata clan]] . At their height they had family members and retainers such as the Nagurumi, Ogawa, Ishikura, Kawada placed in strategic positions throughout the district. However, they lost control of the area during the Tenbun period ([[1532]]-[[1555]]) when the [[Hojo clan|Hôjô]] of Odawara, who were taking over the Kantô, passed Mt. Akagi, and took control of the area. In [[1560]], [[Uesugi Kenshin]] of Echigo crossed the Tanigawa Range via Mikuni Pass and attacked Nagurumi Castle and other fortifications in the area. He took possession of Numata Castle and used it as a base to fight the Hôjô in Maebashi and [[Musashi province]]. However, during the strife in Echigo after his death in [[1578]] the Hôjô attacked Numata and gained control again.<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, from [[1579]]-[[1580]], [[Sanada Masayuki]] of the [[Ueda castle|Ueda]] area of [[Shinano province]] by the order of [[Takeda Katsuyori]] started taking control of the valley of the Azuma River, which rises just over Torii Pass east of Sanada Village and enters the Tone River south of Numata. He took Iwahitsu岩櫃 Castle (near Nakanojô in the Azuma Valley) and then fortifications in the Tone region, including Nagurumi Castle, and finally his goal of Numata. From then on, there was continual fighting between the Sanada and Hôjô concerning Numata. ([[Tokugawa Ieyasu]]'s attack on Ueda in [[1585]] was in support of the Hôjô in this quarrel.) <br />
<br />
When [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] consolidated his control of central Japan, he urged the Hôjô to visit the capital, but as a condition of their trip the Hôjô demanded that they be given the two districts of Tone and Azuma which were held by the Sanada. In response to Hideyoshi, Masayuki replied that he was willing to give up Numata, but would not give up Nagurumi. Finally in the seventh month of [[1589]], a settlement was reached by which the Hôjô would be given the east bank of the Tone (including Numata) and the north bank of the Akatani River, which flows into the Tone north of Nagurumi, while the Sanada would get the rest of the west bank, including Nagurumi and the Azuma district, and in addition Minowa in the Ina district of southern [[Shinano province]] as a replacement for Numata. However, in the eleventh month the Hôjô commander in Numata, Inomata Kuninori 猪俣 邦憲, attacked and took Nagurumi castle. Hideyoshi was incensed, and immediately announced an [[Siege of Odawara|attack on Odawara]]. The 7th month of the next year ([[1590]]) Odawara fell, and Hideyoshi ruled all Japan. Numata was given to the Sanada, and Nagurumi castle was abandoned.<br />
<br />
Excavations have found the remains of an old residence in the Hannya Enclosure (Kuruwa) 般若郭, presumably that of the Nagurumi family. Most of the present fortifications were built by Sanada Masayuki. Earthworks (土塁) over two meters high were build around each enclosure. This was built as a base from which to attack Numata Castle.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Explanation sign on site<br />
*[[Sanada Family Materials]]<br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
*[http://watchizu.gsi.go.jp/watchizu.aspx?b=364010&l=1385931 Map of location of Nagurumi castle], in Gunma prefecture, Tone district 利根郡 Minakami town みなかみ町 Tsukiyono 月夜野, on Rt. 17 just west of the Tsukiyono Ôhashi bridge<br />
<br />
[[Category:Castles]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Talk:Hojo_Ujiyasu&diff=33774Talk:Hojo Ujiyasu2016-01-30T13:02:06Z<p>Bethetsu: Created page with ""Before his death Ujitsuna had thrown up a series of forts along the Sumida River, and chief among these was Kawagoe, defended in 1545 by Hôjô Tsunanari. " Surely not the Su..."</p>
<hr />
<div>"Before his death Ujitsuna had thrown up a series of forts along the Sumida River, and chief among these was Kawagoe, defended in 1545 by Hôjô Tsunanari. "<br />
Surely not the Sumida River. Either the Ara-kawa or Iruma-gawa.</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Hojo_Ujitsuna&diff=33773Hojo Ujitsuna2016-01-30T12:52:17Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>* ''Born: [[1487]]''<br />
* ''Died: [[1541]]''<br />
<br />
Ujitsuna was the second [[Hojo clan|Hôjô]] daimyô and was the eldest son of [[Hojo Soun|Hôjô Soun]] ([[1432]]-[[1519]]), who was known in life as Ise Shinkuro or Sozui. He assumed formal leadership of the family with the death of his father in [[1519]]. <br />
<br />
By the time Ujitsuna had become daimyô, the Hôjô controlled [[Izu province|Izu Province]], most of [[Sagami province|Sagami Province]], and was starting to exert some influence in [[Musashi province|Musashi]]. Ujitsuna moved the center of clan leadership to [[Odawara castle|Odawara Castle]] in Sagami Province. He then adopted the name Hôjô, presumably for the prestige value. Soun is often described as assuming that name but no evidence exists to support that claim. In any event, [[1523]] is when the name Hôjô first appears in records. <br />
<br />
Ujitsuna carried on his father's ambitions, pushing forward the Hôjô borders whenever the opportunity presented itself. In [[1524]] he went to war with the Ogigayatsu-Uesugi and took [[Edo castle|Edo Castle]] in Musashi Province, which he gave to [[Toyama Tadakage]]. He ordered repairs to [[Kozuke castle|Kôzuke Castle]] (at present-day Yokohama) and consolidated his hold in southern Musashi. The [[Satomi clan|Satomi]] of [[Awa province (Honshu)]] staged a naval landing at Kamakura and in the course of the fighting that resulted much of the town was burned, including the famous [[Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrine]]. The Satomi withdrew but a feud had been joined that would last for many decades. Afterwards, the [[Moro clan|Moro]] and [[Okamoto clan|Okamoto]] families of Musashi, vassals of the [[Uesugi clan|Uesugi]], secretly went over to Ujitsuna. Thus assured, Ujitsuna pushed northward into the province. The [[Ogigatatsi clan|Ogigayatsu]] resisted stubbornly and the Hôjô expansion was by no means rapid. <br />
<br />
In the wake of the Satomi attack on Kamakura, Ujitsuna took up the task of rebuilding the Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrine. The court recognized Ujitsuna' efforts by awarding him the title of sakyô dayu and the Fifth Court Rank, Junior Grade. An Imperial messenger arrived in [[1533]] ordering Ujitsuna to pay the annual tribute from Izu Province to the Court. This in effect legitamized the Hôjô's rule of Izu Province and Hôjô control of Sagami was implied as well. <br />
<br />
In [[1535]], Ujitsuna marched out to support his ally [[Imagawa Ujiteru]]. In his absence the Ogasawara-Uesugi struck Sagami Province, causing damage to Oiso, Hiratsuka, Ichinomiya, Kowade, and Kagenuma. Ujitsuna sped back to Sagami and made a call to sympathetic but previously uncommitted warrior families in Musashi, Kazusa, and Awa to support him. A number of these houses responded, goaded on by an abiding resentment of the often heavy-handed rule of the Uesugi. Reinforced, Ujitsuna met the Uesugi army at the Irumagawa and defeated it. <br />
<br />
[[Ogagiyatsu-Uesugi Tomooki]] died in [[1537]], prompting [[Kaigen Sozu|Kaigen Sôzu]] of the Tsurugaoka Hachiman shrine to record that the people of Sagami Province 'rejoiced in the belief that now the land would be at peace.' As it happened, Tomooki's heir, Tomosada, proved just as willing to carry on the war with the upstart Hôjô. Ujitsuna struck out, taking [[Kawagoe castle|Kawagoe Castle]] in Musashi and forcing Tomosada to take up at [[Matsuyama castle (Kanto)|Matsuyama Castle]]. The Satomi of Awa, who had presently been recovering from a succession dispute, now allied with [[Ashikaga Yoshiaki]], the koga kuboi. When Ujitsuna became preoccupied with a dispute with the [[Imagawa clan|Imagawa]], [[Satomi Yoshitaka]] ([[1512]]-[[1574]]) joined forces with Yoshiaki and invaded the Hôjô domain in [[1538]]. Ujitsuna hastily raised troops from Sagami and Izu. He combined his forces at Edo and then pushed on to meet the allies at Konodai. The result was a decisive victory for Ujitsuna. Yoshiaki was killed and the Satomi in total retreat. <br />
<br />
The year following Konodai, Ujitsuna went to war with the Imagawa and seized land west of the Fuji River. Over the course of twenty years, Ujitsuna had slowly but methodically expanded the Hôjô domain and proven himself a capable general. <br />
Like his father, Soun, Ujitsuna worked to secure the respect of the people through generous donations to temples and in the application of reasonable tax rates. In addition to repairing the Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrine, Ujitsuna also ordered repairs carried out on the [[Samukawa Shrine]], the [[Hokane Gangen]], [[Rokusho Myo|Rokusho Myô]] at Kôzu, and the [[Izu Mishima Shrine]]. He went on to grant tax and labor exemptions to other shrines. Finally, he built a temple, the Soun-ji, in honor of his father, an act that garnered him praise from within and without the Hôjô domain. <br />
<br />
Ujitsuna was succeeded by his eldest son, [[Hojo Ujiyasu|Ujiyasu]]. He had earlier adopted a son from the Kushima family of Suruga Province. The boy became Hôjô Tsunanari, destined to be a valued retainer for Ujiyasu.<br />
==References==<br />
* Initial text from [http://www.samurai-archives.com Samurai-Archives.com] FWSeal & CEWest, 2005<br />
*''The History of Kanagawa'' Kanagawa Prefectural Government, Japan, 1985<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Hojo_Ujitsuna&diff=33772Hojo Ujitsuna2016-01-30T12:50:14Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>* ''Born: [[1487]]''<br />
* ''Died: [[1541]]''<br />
<br />
Ujitsuna was the second [[Hojo clan|Hôjô]] daimyô and was the eldest son of [[Hojo Soun|Hôjô Soun]] ([[1432]]-[[1519]]), who was known in life as Ise Shinkuro or Sozui. He assumed formal leadership of the family with the death of his father in [[1519]]. <br />
<br />
By the time Ujitsuna had become daimyô, the Hôjô controlled [[Izu province|Izu Province]], most of [[Sagami province|Sagami Province]], and was starting to exert some influence in [[Musashi province|Musashi]]. Ujitsuna moved the center of clan leadership to [[Odawara castle|Odawara Castle]] in Sagami Province. He then adopted the name Hôjô, presumably for the prestige value. Soun is often described as assuming that name but no evidence exists to support that claim. In any event, [[1523]] is when the name Hôjô first appears in records. <br />
<br />
Ujitsuna carried on his father's ambitions, pushing forward the Hôjô borders whenever the opportunity presented itself. In [[1524]] he went to war with the Ogigayatsu-Uesugi and took [[Edo castle|Edo Castle]] in Musashi Province, which he gave to [[Toyama Tadakage]]. He ordered repairs to [[Kozuke castle|Kôzuke Castle]] (at present-day Yokohama) and consolidated his hold in southern Musashi. The [[Satomi clan|Satomi]] of [[Awa province (Honshu)]] staged a naval landing at Kamakura and in the course of the fighting that resulted much of the town was burned, including the famous [[Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrine]]. The Satomi withdrew but a feud had been joined that would last for many decades. Afterwards, the [[Moro clan|Moro]] and [[Okamoto clan|Okamoto]] families of Musashi, vassals of the [[Uesugi clan|Uesugi]], secretly went over to Ujitsuna. Thus assured, Ujitsuna pushed northward into the province. The [[Ogigatatsi clan|Ogigayatsu]] resisted stubbornly and the Hôjô expansion was by no means rapid. <br />
<br />
In the wake of the Satomi attack on Kamakura, Ujitsuna took up the task of rebuilding the Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrine. The court recognized Ujitsuna' efforts by awarding him the title of sakyô dayu and the Fifth Court Rank, Junior Grade. An Imperial messenger arrived in [[1533]] ordering Ujitsuna to pay the annual tribute from Izu Province to the Court. This in effect legitamized the Hôjô's rule of Izu Province and Hôjô control of Sagami was implied as well. <br />
<br />
In [[1535]], Ujitsuna marched out to support his ally [[Imagawa Ujiteru]]. In his absence the Ogasawara-Uesugi struck Sagami Province, causing damage to Oiso, Hiratsuka, Ichinomiya, Kowade, and Kagenuma. Ujitsuna sped back to Sagami and made a call to sympathetic but previously uncommitted warrior families in Musashi, Kazusa, and Awa to support him. A number of these houses responded, goaded on by an abiding resentment of the often heavy-handed rule of the Uesugi. Reinforced, Ujitsuna met the Uesugi army at the Irumagawa and defeated it. <br />
<br />
[[Ogagiyatsu-Uesugi Tomooki]] died in [[1537]], prompting [[Kaigen Sozu|Kaigen Sôzu]] of the Tsurugaoka Hachiman shrine to record that the people of Sagami Province 'rejoiced in the belief that now the land would be at peace.' As it happened, Tomooki's heir, Tomosada, proved just as willing to carry on the war with the upstart Hôjô. Ujitsuna struck out, taking [[Kawagoe castle|Kawagoe Castle]] in Musashi and forcing Tomosada to take up at [[Matsuyama castle (Kanto)|Matsuyama Castle]]. The Satomi of Awa, who had presently been recovering from a succession dispute, now allied with [[Ashikaga Yoshiaki]], the koga kuboi. When Ujitsuna became preoccupied with a dispute with the [[Imagawa clan|Imagawa]], [[Satomi Yoshitaka]] ([[1512]]-[[1574]]) joined forces with Yoshiaki and invaded the Hôjô domain in [[1538]]. Ujitsuna hastily raised troops from Sagami and Izu. He combined his forces at Edo and then pushed on to meet the allies at Konodai. The result was a decisive victory for Ujitsuna. Yoshiaki was killed and the Satomi in total retreat. <br />
<br />
The year following Konodai, Ujitsuna went to war with the Imagawa and seized land west of the Fuji River. Over the course of twenty years, Ujitsuna had slowly but methodically expanded the Hôjô domain and proven himself a capable general. <br />
Like his father, Soun, Ujitsuna worked to secure the respect of the people through generous donations to temples and in the application of reasonable tax rates. In addition to repairing the Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrine, Ujitsuna also ordered repairs carried out on the [[Samukawa Shrine]], the [[Hokane Gangen]], [[Rokusho Myo|Rokusho Myô]] at Kôzu, and the [[Izu Mishima Shrine]]. He went on to grant tax and labor exemptions to other shrines. Finally, he built a temple, the Soun-ji, in honor of his father, an act that garnered him praise from within and without the Hôjô domain. <br />
<br />
Ujitsuna was succeeded by his eldest son, Ujiyasu. He had earlier adopted a son from the Kushima family of Suruga Province. The boy became Hôjô Tsunanari, destined to be a valued retainer for Ujiyasu.<br />
==References==<br />
* Initial text from [http://www.samurai-archives.com Samurai-Archives.com] FWSeal & CEWest, 2005<br />
*''The History of Kanagawa'' Kanagawa Prefectural Government, Japan, 1985<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Satomi_clan&diff=33771Satomi clan2016-01-30T12:44:21Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>*''Japanese'': 里見氏 ''(Satomi-shi)''<br />
<br />
The Satomi family of [[Awa province (Honshu)|Awa province]] claimed descent from [[Nitta Yoshishige]] (d. 1202), whose son [[Nitta Yoshitoshi|Yoshitoshi]] took 'Satomi' as his surname. The Satomi moved from [[Kozuke province|Kôzuke province]] to Awa in [[1496]],<ref name=arai>Arai Hakuseki, Joyce Ackroyd (trans.), Told Round a ''Brushwood Fire'', University of Tokyo Press (1979), 280n27.</ref> and remained there into the [[Edo Period]]. During the [[Sengoku period]], the Satomi were forced to submit to the overlordship of [[Hojo Ujitsuna|Hôjô Ujitsuna]] in [[1539]]. The remainder of the period saw the clan battle the [[Go-Hojo clan|Hôjô]], [[Takeda clan|Takeda]], and [[Imagawa clan]]s on a number of occasions.<br />
<br />
The clan's holdings amounted to 120,000 ''[[koku]]'' at the beginning of the Edo period, but the clan was dispossessed of its lands in [[1614]], and their line died out in [[1622]].<ref name=arai/><br />
<br />
{|align=center cellpadding="3" cellspacing="1" style="border:1px solid black; background-color: #e7e8ff;"<br />
|- align=center bgcolor=#990000 <br />
|<font color="#FFFFFF">Members of the Satomi clan<br />
|- valign=top<br />
|<br />
* [[Satomi Sanetaka]]<br />
* [[Satomi Yoshitoyo]]<br />
* [[Satomi Yoshitaka]]<br />
* [[Satomi Yoshihiro]]<br />
* [[Satomi Yoshiyori]]<br />
* [[Satomi Yoshiyasu]]<br />
* [[Satomi Tadayoshi]]<br />
|-<br />
|colspan=2|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Historical materials==<br />
* [[Satomi Daidai-ki]]<br />
* [[Satomi Kyudai-ki|Satomi Kyûdai-ki]]<br />
* [[Satomi Gunki]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Sansom, George (1961). "A History of Japan: 1334-1615." Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.<br />
{{saref}}<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Clans]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=The_Floating_Castle_(Movie)&diff=33705The Floating Castle (Movie)2016-01-19T03:09:09Z<p>Bethetsu: Created page with "==Movie Information== Japanese Title: '''Nobô no Shiro''' のぼうの城 * Japan, 2012 * Language: Japanese * color This is a historical movie based on an incident in the ..."</p>
<hr />
<div>==Movie Information==<br />
<br />
Japanese Title: '''Nobô no Shiro''' のぼうの城<br />
* Japan, 2012<br />
* Language: Japanese<br />
* color<br />
<br />
This is a historical movie based on an incident in the [[ Odawara Campaign]]. <br />
<br />
===Plot===<br />
Having conquered western and central Japan, in [[1590]] [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] has turned his attention to the Kanto Plain (the area around present-day Tokyo), which is ruled by the [[Go-Hojo clan|Hôjô clan]] of Odawara. Hideyoshi decides not to attack the strong Odawara Castle, but to besiege it and pick off one by one the other Kanto castles held by the Hôjô family members and vassals. He assigns Oshi Castle 忍城, in present-day Gyôda 行田, Saitama, to his close aid [[Ishida Mitsunari]]. The Hôjô prepare for the siege by holing up in Odawara and summoning the lords of the various castles to come to Odawara leaving substitutes in their castles.<br />
<br />
The lord of Oshi castle is Narita Ujinaga. He departs for Odawara as ordered, but before leaving informs his retainers that he has secretly agreed to surrender to Hideyoshi and orders them not to fight. The castle is then in charge of his happy-go-lucky cousin, Narita Nagachika, the main character in the movie.<br />
<br />
Mitsunari’s envoy Matsuka Masaie arrives expecting surrender, but he is so arrogant that despite orders Nagachika announces that they will fight rather than surrender, and he manages to persuade his retainers to agree, including the clan elder Shibasaki Atsutoshi.<br />
<br />
Oshi puts up a stiff fight against attacks, using tricks like false gates and oil slicks, and Mitsunari finally decides to flood the area with a dam, a tactic successfully used by Hideyoshi against [[Takamatsu Castle (Bitchu)]]. It does flood the area. Nobuchika takes a boat onto the flooded area and dances in front of the besiegers. Realizing who he is, Mitsunari relunctantly orders him shot. Nobuchika is wounded but survives. Later the dam is destroyed by peasants. <br />
<br />
However, in the meantime the Hôjô have surrendered. Nagachika negotiates the terms of the surrender of Oshi castle with Mitsunari. Atsutoshi asks for news, and Mitsunari says that Oshi was the last place in the Kanto to surrender, and it would long be remembered.<br />
<br />
===Cast===<br />
* Nomura Mansai<br />
<br />
===Crew===<br />
* <br />
[[Category:Movies|Battles]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Sanada_Nobuyuki&diff=33617Sanada Nobuyuki2016-01-13T13:36:49Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Sanada Nobuyuki<br />
* ''Born: [[1566]]''<br />
* ''Died: [[1658]]''<br />
* ''Titles: Izu no kami'' (伊豆守)<br />
* ''Childhood Name: Gensabarô'' (原三郎)<br />
* Japanese: 真田信之 ''(Sanada Nobuyuki)'' <ref>Nobuyuki used 信之 on his official seal and often for his signature, and the accounts use that. However two documents of 1608, are signed 信幸. This "yuki" 幸 is the same as that of his father Masayuki 昌幸.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
Sanada Nobuyuki of the [[Sanada clan]] of [[Shinano province]] was the eldest son of of [[Sanada Masayuki]] and his wife (Kanshô-in 寒松院); he was the older brother of Sanada Nobushige ([[Sanada Yukimura|Yukimura]]).<br />
<br />
In [[1583]], the year following the destruction of the [[Takeda clan]] and the death of [[Oda Nobunaga]], Nobuyuki's father Masayuki built [[Ueda castle]] and gained control of the Chiisagata District. When [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] attacked Ueda in [[1585]] in an argument about [[Noda castle]], Nobuyuki was active in the defense. Later he served Ieyasu and married [[Sanada Komatsu|Komatsu]], the daughter of [[Honda Tadakatsu]], who had been adopted by Ieyasu. Therefore he was officially Ieyasu's son-in-law.<br />
<br />
At some point he was given charge of the Sanada castle of [[Numata castle|Numata]] in northwest [[Kozuke province|Kôzuke Province]], apparently in his own right,<ref> In 1600 Ieyasu promised him his father's lands "in the Chiisagata District," but as he said nothing about Numata it was presumably already legally his. </ref> and he and his family were living there in 1600.<br />
<br />
In [[1600]] on the eve of the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] Nobuyuki was ordered by Ieyasu to participate in the attack on [[Uesugi Kagekatsu]] of [[Aizu]], as were his father and brother Nobushige. They got as far as Inuyama in [[Shimotsuke province]] when they received a summons (dated 7/17) from the group allied with [[Ishida Mitsunari]] inviting them to join against Ieyasu. Masayuki immediately withdrew from Ieyasu's army taking Nobushige with him and returned to Ueda via Numata, where Komatsu refused him admittance, but Nobuyuki stayed with Ieyasu, it is said at his father's direction, presumably so that which ever side won the family would be preserved. On 7/ 24 Ieyasu wrote Nobuyuki a letter thanking him for not going with his father and followed it up three days later by a formal letter giving him his father's possessions in the Chiisagata District (the Ueda area). <br />
<br />
Nobuyuki went back to Numata, and then was ordered to join Ieyasu's son [[Tokugawa Hidetada|Hidetada]], who left Utsunomiya on 8/24, as he "moved to Chiisagata." (A similar letter to another general said more directly "to chastise Sanada of Shinshû (Shinano).") Though Hidetada had the much larger army, he did not succeed in the attack against Ueda, and after several days went on west, but he (and Nobuyuki) arrived to late to participate in the battle of Sekigahara.<br />
<br />
Having won the battle of Sekigahara, Ieyasu could do as he pleased. Nobuyuki was able to intercede on behalf of his father and brother, so their lives were spared, but they were exiled to Kudoyama (九度山) in Mt. Koya in [[Kii province]]. They left Ueda castle the end of 1600. Ieyasu had the fortifications of the castle completely destroyed, and it was handed over to Nobuyuki about the middle of 1601.<br />
<br />
Nobuyuki built a mansion in the san-no-maru, east of the main previously fortified section of the castle, and went back and forth between Ueda and Numata. He worked on the devolopment of Ueda as a station on the [[Hokkokudo highway|Hokkokudô Highway]] which linked the Kantô Plain (Edo) with [[Echigo province]].<br />
<br />
Nobuyuki kept in touch with his father and brother in Kudoyama, and when his father died in 1611 he consulted with [[Honda Masanobu]] about going into mourning publically. Honda wrote back that as his father had died as an exile, he should get permission from the bakufu before going into mourning.<br />
<br />
Nobuyuki was summoned to join the campaign against [[Osaka castle]]; he sent his two sons to represent the clan. (His brother Nobushige (Yukimura) was prominent on the Osaka side.)<br />
<br />
From about 1616 Nobuyuki concentrated on Ueda Castle, leaving his elder son Nobuyoshi (信吉) in charge of Numata castle. In 1622 he was transferred from Ueda (65,000 [[koku]]) to Matsuhiro 松代, in Shinano, formerly also called [[Kaizu]] (海津) (100,000 koku), though he kept Numata Castle. This was the first change of location for the clan, most of the members of which had been in Chiisagata for untold generations, though many clans had experienced such moves earlier. Many of the samurai stayed in Ueda or came back to Ueda as commoners. Nobuyuki lived till the age of 92 and never retired. His elder son having already died, he was succeeded by his son [[Sanada Nobumasa|Nobumasa]] (信政).<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*[[Sanada Family Materials]]<br />
*''Ueda Castle'' (see the Sanada Family Materials)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Doi_Michitake&diff=33616Doi Michitake2016-01-13T13:26:03Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>* ''Titles: Hyogo no kami''<br />
<br />
<br />
Michitake was the son of [[Doi Michinao|Doi Izu no kami Michinao]]. He served [[Kono Michinobu|Kôno Michinobu]], to whom he was related, and held [[Doi castle]] in [[Iyo province]]. He fought against the [[Otomo clan|Ôtomo]] at Wake Beach in [[1565]] and in [[1572]] against both the [[Mori clan|Môri]] and [[Miyoshi clan|Miyoshi]]. He surrendered to [[Kobayakawa Takakage]] when [[ Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] invaded Shikkoku in 1585. <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Initial text from ''Sengoku Biographical Dictionary'' ([http://www.samurai-archives.com Samurai-Archives.com]) FWSeal & CEWest, 2005<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Sanada_Masayuki&diff=33615Sanada Masayuki2016-01-13T09:45:13Z<p>Bethetsu: Complete rewriting</p>
<hr />
<div>Sanada Masayuki<br />
* ''Born: [[1544]]''<br />
* ''Died: [[1611]]''<br />
* ''Title: Awa no Kami'' 安房守<br />
* “Japanese:” 真田昌幸 “(Sanada Masayuki)”<br />
* ''Distinction: considered one of the most skilled samurai commanders of the later Sengoku Period; sometimes considered one of [[Takeda Shingen's 24 Generals]]''<br />
<br />
<br />
Masayuki was the 3rd son of [[Sanada Yukitaka]] ([[1512]]-[[1574]]) and like his father first served [[Takeda Shingen]]. His first taste of battle, in fact, is said to have been at the famous [[Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima]]. At one point he was known as Mutô Kibêjô 武藤喜兵衛尉, but his two elder brothers, Nobutsuna and Masateru, were killed in [[1575]] at [[Battle of Nagashino|Nagashino]], and he became head of the Sanada. <br />
<br />
As the power of the Takeda declined, Masayuki expanded from northern [[Shinano province|Shinano]] into [[Kozuke province|Kôzuke]] in [[1580]] and took [[Numata castle] from the [[Go-Hojo clan|Hôjô]], who controlled most of the [[Kanto|Kantô]]. Numata is in northern Kôzuke on the Tone River 利根川, which flows into the Kantô plain, so the Sanada had access to all three [[highways]] between Kantô and [[Echigo province]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1582]] [[Oda Nobunaga]] attacked the Takeda, and as their cause was hopeless, Masayuki wrote the Hôjô requesting to become their vassal<ref>Letter from [[Hojo Ujikuni|Hôjô Ujikuni]] to Masayuki dated 1582/3/12 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 57).</ref> and after Nobunaga’s death, sent hostages to them. But Shinano was semi-controlled in quick succession by various warlords, and Masayuki accepted whoever was in control. He ended up serving [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who now ruled the former Takeda center of [[Kai province|Kai]]. <br />
<br />
Masayuki now worked on consolidating control of the Chiisagata district of Shinano. He had built a number of mountain castles as Sanada-yama castle and Matsuo castle and still held on to Numata castle, but in [[1583]] started the construction of the flatland [[Ueda castle]] on the junction of the Tôsendô 東山道 (Nakasendô) and the Hokkoku Highway 北国街道.<br />
<br />
In [[1585]] Ieyasu demanded that Numata be returned to the Hôjô as part of a Tokugawa-Hôjô agreement signed that year. Masayuki refused, allied with [[Uesugi Kagekatsu]] of Echigo, and sent his second son [[Sanada Yukimura|Nobushige]] as a hostage to Kaizu in the 8th month in return for assistance at Numata against the Hôjô. In the intercalary 8th month (int. 8) he resisted an attack on Ueda by a Tokugawa army sent to chastise him. Also, the Hôjô failed to bring down Numata, which was held by Masayuki's uncle, [[Yasawa Yoritsuna]]. Masayuki asked [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi|Hashiba (Toyotomi) Hideyoshi]] to intervene <ref>Letter from Hideyoshi to Masayuki dated 1585/10/17 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 84).</ref> and finally made peace with the Tokugawa by sending his elder son [[Sanada Nobuyuki|Nobuyuki]] as a hostage to Hamamatsu.<br />
<br />
In [[1589]] Hideyoshi arbitrated the dispute over Numata, giving it to the Hôjô, but let the Sanada keep [[Nagurumi castle]] and the Azuma district of Kôzuke, and also gave them part of the Ina district of Shinano as a replacement for Numata. However, in the eleventh month the Hôjô commander in Numata attacked and took Nagurumi castle. Hideyoshi immediately announced he would attack the Hôjô, and the next year carried out the [[Odawara Campaign]]. Masayuki participated by attacking Hôjô forts in Kôzuke and saw his territories increased somewhat as a result. Numata was given to his elder son Nobuyuki.<br />
<br />
In [[1600]] during the [[Sekigahara campaign]] Masayuki and his two elder sons accompanied the Tokugawa on their march against Uesugi Kagekatsu, but [[Ishida Mitsunari]]’s call to arms of 7/17 reached them in [[Shimotsuke province]]. Masayuki was furious that he had not been informed beforehand, <ref>Letter from Mitsunari to Masayuki dated 1600/7/30 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 94).</ref> but he and Nobushige declared for the 'western' cause and returned to Ueda, though Nobuyuki joined the Tokugawa camp, probably with his father’s encouragement to preserve the family whichever side won. Masayuki and Nobushige were besieged in Ueda by [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] but succesfully resisted the Eastern forces, doing so in such a staunch manner that Ueda is considered one of the 'classic' sieges of Japanese history. <br />
<br />
Having won control of the country, at the end of the year, Tokugawa Ieyasu banished both Masayuki and Yukimura to Kudoyama of Kôyazan in [[Kai province]]. Nobuyuki, who had been given Ueda, supported them, but Masayuki in his lettters often complained of debt. Apparently thought he would soon be pardoned,<ref>Letter of Masayuki dated 1603/3/15 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 99).</ref> but that was not to be, and he died in 1611. <br />
<br />
Yukimura would become the major figure on the Toyotomi side during the [1614]-[1615] [[Osaka Campaign]], while Nobuyuki, who was later transfered to Matsushiro in NW Shinano, would live into his 90's, and his descendents ruled there until the Restoration. <br />
<br />
Masayuki is considered one of the most skilled samurai commanders of the later Sengoku Period, and foul play has traditionally been suspected in his death. <br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
==References==<br />
{{saref}}<br />
[[Sanada Family Materials]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=User:Bethetsu/sandbox&diff=33614User:Bethetsu/sandbox2016-01-13T09:32:11Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>My sandbox<br />
Sanada Masayuki<br />
* ''Born: [[1544]]''<br />
* ''Died: [[1611]]''<br />
* ''Title: Awa no Kami'' 安房守<br />
* “Japanese:” 真田昌幸 “(Sanada Masayuki)”<br />
* ''Distinction: considered one of the most skilled samurai commanders of the later Sengoku Period; sometimes considered one of [[Takeda Shingen's 24 Generals]]''<br />
<br />
<br />
Masayuki was the 3rd son of [[Sanada Yukitaka]] ([[1512]]-[[1574]]) and like his father first served [[Takeda Shingen]]. His first taste of battle, in fact, is said to have been at the famous [[Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima]]. At one point he was known as Mutô Kibêjô 武藤喜兵衛尉, but his two elder brothers, Nobutsuna and Masateru, were killed in [[1575]] at [[Battle of Nagashino|Nagashino]], and he became head of the Sanada. <br />
<br />
As the power of the Takeda declined, Masayuki expanded from northern [[Shinano province|Shinano]] into [[Kozuke province|Kôzuke]] in [[1580]] and took [[Numata castle|Numata]] from the [[Go-Hojo clan|Hôjô]], who controlled most of the [[Kanto|Kantô]]. Numata is in northern Kôzuke on the Tone River 利根川, which flows into the Kantô plain, so the Sanada had access to all three [[highways]] between Kantô and [[Echigo province]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1582]] [[Oda Nobunaga]] attacked the Takeda, and as their cause was hopeless, Masayuki wrote the Hôjô requesting to become their vassal.<ref>Letter from [[Hojo Ujikuni|Hôjô Ujikuni]] to Masayuki dated 1582/3/12 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 57).</ref> and after Nobunaga’s death, sent hostages to them. But Shinano was semi-controlled in quick succession by various warlords, and Masayuki accepted whoever was in control. He ended up serving [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who now ruled the former Takeda center of [[Kai province|Kai]]. <br />
<br />
Masayuki now worked on consolidating control of the Chiisagata district of Shinano. He had built a number of mountain castles as Sanada-yama castle and Matsuo castle and still held on to Numata castle, but in [[1583]] started the construction of the flatland [[Ueda castle]] on the junction of the Tôsendô 東山道 (Nakasendô) and the Hokkoku Highway 北国街道.<br />
<br />
In [[1585]] Ieyasu demanded that Numata be returned to the Hôjô as part of a Tokugawa-Hôjô agreement signed that year. Masayuki refused, allied with [[Uesugi Kagekatsu]] of Echigo, and sent his second son [[Sanada Yukimura|Nobushige]] as a hostage to Kaizu in the 8th month in return for assistance at Numata against the Hôjô. In the intercalary 8th month (int. 8) he defeated a Tokugawa army sent to chastise him near Ueda. Also, the Hôjô failed to bring down Numata, which was held by Masayuki's uncle, [[Yasawa Yoritsuna]]. Masayuki asked [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi|Hashiba (Toyotomi) Hideyoshi]] to intervene <ref>Letter from Hideyoshi to Masayuki dated 1585/10/17 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 84).</ref> and finally made peace with the Tokugawa by sending his elder son [[Sanada Nobuyuki|Nobuyuki]] as a hostage to Hamamatsu.<br />
<br />
In [[1589]] Hideyoshi arbitrated the dispute over Numata, and gave it to the Hôjô, but let the Sanada keep [[Nagurumi castle]] and the Azuma district of Kôzuke, and also gave them part of the Ina district of Shinano as a replacement for Numata. However, in the eleventh month the commander in Numata attacked and took Nagurumi castle. Hideyoshi immediately announced he would attack the Hôjô, and the next year carried out the [[Odawara Campaign]]. Masayuki participated by attacking Hôjô forts in Kôzuke and saw his territories increased somewhat as a result. Numata was given to his elder son Nobuyuki, however.<br />
<br />
In [[1600]] during the [[Sekigahara campaign]] Masayuki and his two sons accompanied the Tokugawa on their march against Uesugi Kagekatsu, but [[Ishida Mitsunari]]’s call to arms of 7/17 reached them in [[Shimotsuke province]]. Masayuki was furious that he had not been informed beforehand, <ref>Letter from Mitsunari to Masayuki dated 1600/7/30 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 94).</ref> but he and Nobushige declared for the 'western' cause and returned to Ueda, though Nobuyuki joined the Tokugawa camp, probably with his father’s encouragement to preserve the family whichever side won. Masayuki and Nobushige were besieged in Ueda by [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] but succesfully resisted the Eastern forces, doing so in such a staunch manner that Ueda is considered one of the 'classic' sieges of Japanese history. <br />
<br />
Having won control of the country, at the end of the year, Tokugawa Ieyasu banished both Masayuki and Yukimura to Kudoyama of Kôyazan in [[Kai province]]. Nobuyuki, who had been given Ueda, supported them, but Masayuki often complained of debt. Apparently thought he would soon be pardoned, but that was not to be, and he died in 1611. <br />
<br />
Yukimura would become the major figure on the Toyotomi side during the [1614]-[1615] [[Osaka Campaign]], while Nobuyuki, who was later transfered to Matsushiro in NW Shinano, would live into his 90's, and his descendents ruled there until the Restoration. <br />
<br />
Masayuki is considered one of the most skilled samurai commanders of the later Sengoku Period, and foul play has traditionally been suspected in his death. <br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
==References==<br />
{{saref}}<br />
[[Sanada Family Materials]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=User:Bethetsu/sandbox&diff=33606User:Bethetsu/sandbox2016-01-12T14:25:51Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>My sandbox<br />
Sanada Masayuki<br />
* ''Born: [[1544]]''<br />
* ''Died: [[1611]]''<br />
* ''Title: Awa no Kami'' 安房守<br />
* “Japanese:” 真田昌幸 “(Sanada Masayuki)”<br />
* ''Distinction: Sometimes credited as one of [[Takeda Shingen's 24 Generals]]''<br />
<br />
<br />
Masayuki was the 3rd son of [[Sanada Yukitaka]] ([[1512]]-[[1574]]) and like his father first served [[Takeda Shingen]]. His first taste of battle, in fact, is said to have been at the famous [[Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima]]. At one point he was known as Mutô Kibêjô 武藤喜兵衛尉, but his two elder brothers, Nobutsuna and Masateru, were killed in [[1575]] at [[Battle of Nagashino|Nagashino]], and he became head of the Sanada. <br />
<br />
As the power of the Takeda declined, Masayuki expanded from northern [[Shinano province|Shinano]] into [[Kozuke province|Kôzuke]] in [[1580]] and took [[Numata castle|Numata]] from the [[Go-Hojo clan|Hôjô]], who controlled most of the [[Kanto|Kantô]]. Numata is in northern Kôzuke on the Tone River 利根川, which flows into the Kantô plain, so the Sanada had access to all three [[highways]] between Kantô and [[Echigo province]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1582]] [[Oda Nobunaga]] attacked the Takeda, and as their cause was hopeless, Masayuki wrote the Hôjô requesting to become their vassal.<ref>Letter from [[Hojo Ujikuni|Hôjô Ujikuni]] to Masayuki dated 1582/3/12 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 57).</ref> and after Nobunaga’s death, sent hostages to them. But Shinano was semi-controlled in quick succession by various warlords, and Masayuki accepted whoever was in control. He ended up serving [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who now ruled the former Takeda center of [[Kai province|Kai]]. <br />
<br />
Masayuki now worked on consolidating control of the Chiisagata district of Shinano. He had built a number of mountain castles as Sanada-yama castle and Matsuo castle and still held on to Numata castle, but in [[1583]] started the construction of the flatland [[Ueda castle]] on the junction of the Tôsendô 東山道 (Nakasendô) and the Hokkoku Highway 北国街道.<br />
<br />
In [[1585]] Ieyasu demanded that Numata be returned to the Hôjô as part of a Tokugawa-Hôjô agreement signed that year. Masayuki refused, allied with [[Uesugi Kagekatsu]] of Echigo, and sent his second son [[Sanada Yukimura|Nobushige]] as a hostage to Kaizu in the 8th month in return for assistance at Numata against the Hôjô. In the intercalary 8th month (int. 8) he defeated a Tokugawa army sent to chastise him near Ueda. Also, the Hôjô failed to bring down Numata, which was held by Masayuki's uncle, [[Yasawa Yoritsuna]]. Masayuki asked [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi|Hashiba (Toyotomi) Hideyoshi]] to intervene <ref>Letter from Hideyoshi to Masayuki dated 1585/10/17 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 84).</ref> and finally made peace with the Tokugawa by sending his elder son [[Sanada Nobuyuki|Nobuyuki]] as a hostage to Hamamatsu.<br />
<br />
In [[1589]] Hideyoshi arbitrated the dispute over Numata, and gave it to the Hôjô, but let the Sanada keep [[Nagurumi castle]] and the Azuma district of Kôzuke, and also gave them part of the Ina district of Shinano as a replacement for Numata. However, in the eleventh month the commander in Numata attacked and took Nagurumi castle. Hideyoshi immediately announced he would attack the Hôjô, and the next year carried out the [[Odawara Campaign]]. Masayuki participated by attacking Hôjô forts in Kôzuke and saw his territories increased somewhat as a result. Numata was given to his elder son Nobuyuki, however.<br />
<br />
In [[1600]] during the [[Sekigahara campaign]] Masayuki and his two sons accompanied the Tokugawa on their march against Uesugi Kagekatsu, but [[Ishida Mitsunari]]’s call to arms of 7/17 reached them in [[Shimotsuke province]]. Masayuki was furious that he had not been informed beforehand, <ref>Letter from Mitsunari to Masayuki dated 1600/7/30 ([[Sanada Family Materials]], p. 94).</ref> but he and Nobushige declared for the 'western' cause and returned to Ueda, though Nobuyuki joined the Tokugawa camp, probably with his father’s encouragement to preserve the family whichever side won. Masayuki and Nobushige were besieged in Ueda by [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] but succesfully resisted the Eastern forces, doing so in such a staunch manner that Ueda is considered one of the 'classic' sieges of Japanese history. <br />
<br />
Having won control of the country, at the end of the year, Tokugawa Ieyasu banished both Masayuki and Yukimura to Kudoyama of Kôyazan in [[Kai province]]. Nobuyuki, who had been given Ueda, supported them, but Masayuki often complained of debt. Apparently thought he would soon be pardoned, but that was not to be, and he died in 1611. <br />
<br />
Yukimura would become the major figure on the Toyotomi side during the [1614]-[1615] [[Osaka Campaign]], while Nobuyuki, who was later transfered to Matsushiro in NW Shinano, would live into his 90's, and his descendents ruled there until the Restoration. <br />
<br />
Masayuki is considered one of the most skilled samurai commanders of the later Sengoku Period, and foul play has traditionally been suspected in his death. <br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
==References==<br />
{{saref}}<br />
[[Sanada Family Materials]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=User:Bethetsu/sandbox&diff=33605User:Bethetsu/sandbox2016-01-12T14:13:28Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>My sandbox<br />
Sanada Masayuki<br />
* ''Born: [[1544]]''<br />
* ''Died: [[1611]]''<br />
* ''Title: Awa no Kami'' 安房守<br />
* “Japanese:” 真田昌幸 “(Sanada Masayuki)”<br />
* ''Distinction: Sometimes credited as one of [[Takeda Shingen's 24 Generals]]''<br />
<br />
<br />
Masayuki was the 3rd son of [[Sanada Yukitaka]] ([[1512]]-[[1574]]) and like his father first served [[Takeda Shingen]]. His first taste of battle, in fact, is said to have been at the famous [[Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima]]. At one point he was known as Mutô Kibêjô 武藤喜兵衛尉, but his two elder brothers, Nobutsuna and Masateru, were killed in [[1575]] at [[Battle of Nagashino|Nagashino]], and he became head of the Sanada. <br />
<br />
As the power of the Takeda declined, Masayuki expanded from northern [[Shinano province|Shinano]] into [[Kozuke province|Kôzuke]] in [[1580]] and took [[Numata castle|Numata]] from the [[Go-Hojo clan|Hôjô]], who controlled most of the [[Kanto|Kantô]]. Numata is in northern Kôzuke on the Tone River 利根川, which flows into the Kantô plain, so the Sanada had access to all three [[highways]] between Kantô and [[Echigo province]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1582]][[Oda Nobunaga]] attacked the Takeda, and as their cause was hopeless, Masayuki wrote the Hôjô requesting to become their vassal.[fn 1] and after Nobunaga’s death, sent hostages to them. But Shinano was semi-controlled in quick succession by various warlords, and Masayuki accepted whoever was in control. He ended up serving [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who now ruled the former Takeda center of [[Kai province|Kai]]. <br />
<br />
Masayuki now worked on consolidating control of the Chiisagata district of Shinano. He had built a number of mountain castles as Sanada-yama castle and Matsuo castle and still held on to Numata castle, but in [[1583]] started the construction of the flatland [[Ueda castle]] on the junction of the Tôsendô 東山道 (Nakasendô) and the Hokkoku Highway 北国街道.<br />
<br />
In [[1585]] Ieyasu demanded that Numata be returned to the Hôjô as part of a Tokugawa-Hôjô agreement signed that year. Masayuki refused, allied with [[Uesugi Kagekatsu]] of Echigo, and sent his second son [[Sanada Yukimura|Nobushige]] as a hostage to Kaizu in the 8th month in return for assistance at Numata against the Hôjô. In the intercalary 8th month (int. 8) he defeated a Tokugawa army sent to chastise him near Ueda. Also, the Hôjô failed to bring down Numata, which was held by Masayuki's uncle, [[Yasawa Yoritsuna]]. Masayuki asked [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi|Hashiba (Toyotomi) Hideyoshi]] to intervene [fn] and finally made peace with the Tokugawa by sending his elder son [[Sanada Nobuyuki|Nobuyuki]] as a hostage to Hamamatsu.<br />
<br />
In [[1589]] Hideyoshi arbitrated the dispute over Numata, and gave it to the Hôjô, but let the Sanada keep [[Nagurumi castle]] and the Azuma district of Kôzuke, and also gave them part of the Ina district of Shinano as a replacement for Numata. However, in the eleventh month the commander in Numata, attacked and took Nagurumi castle. Hideyoshi immediately announced he would attack the Hôjô, and the next year carried out the [[Odawara Campaign]]. Masayuki participated by attacking Hôjô forts in Kôzuke and saw his territories increased somewhat as a result. Numata was given to his elder son Nobuyuki, however.<br />
<br />
In [[1600]] during the [[Sekigahara campaign]] Masayuki and his two sons accompanied the Tokugawa on their march against Uesugi Kagekatsu, but [[Ishida Mitsunari]]’s call to arms of 7/17 reached them in Shimotsuke. Masayuki was furious that he had not been informed beforehand,[3] but he and Nobushige declared for the 'western' cause and returned to Ueda, though Nobuyuki joined the Tokugawa camp, probably with his father’s encouragement to preserve the family whichever side won. Masayuki and Nobushige were besieged in Ueda by [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] but succesfully resisted the Eastern forces, doing so in such a staunch manner that Ueda is considered one of the 'classic' sieges of Japanese history. <br />
<br />
Having won control of the country, at the end of the year, Tokugawa Ieyasu banished both Masayuki and Yukimura to Kudoyama of Kôyazan in [[Kai province]]. Nobuyuki, who had been given Ueda, supported them, but Masayuki often complained of debt. Apparently thought he would soon be pardoned, but that was not to be, and he died in 1611. <br />
<br />
Yukimura would become the major figure on the Toyotomi side during the [1614]-[1615] [[Osaka Campaign]], while Nobuyuki, who was later transfered to Matsushiro in NW Shinano, would live into his 90's, and his descendents ruled there until the Restoration. <br />
<br />
Masayuki is considered one of the most skilled samurai commanders of the later Sengoku Period, and foul play has traditionally been suspected in his death. <br />
<br />
[1]Letter from [Hojo Ujikuni|Hôjô Ujikuni] to Masayuki dated 1582/3/12 ([Sanada Family Material], p. 57).<br />
[2]Letter from Hideyoshi to Masayuki dated 1585/10/17 ([Sanada Family Material], p. 84).<br />
[3]Letter from Mitsunari to Masayuki dated 1600/7/30 ([Sanada Family Material], p. 94).<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{saref}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Japanese_Inn&diff=23834Japanese Inn2013-03-03T08:47:39Z<p>Bethetsu: Created page with "*''Author: Oliver Statler'' *''First Published: 1961, Random House'' A few miles east of Shunpu in Suruga province along the important Tokaido Highway lies t..."</p>
<hr />
<div>*''Author: Oliver Statler''<br />
*''First Published: 1961, Random House''<br />
<br />
A few miles east of Shunpu in [[Suruga province]] along the important [[Highways|Tokaido Highway]] lies the town of Okitsu 興津, <ref> These are all now part of Shizuoka City, Shimizu Ward, of Shizuoka Prefecture.</ref> dominated by [[Seiken-ji|Seiken-ji Temple]] 清見寺. This book tells the history of Japan from 1550-1953 as seen through the eyes of the Mochizuki 望月 family, the owners of an actual inn in Okitsu, a waki-honjuku 脇本宿, <ref>A regular inn that could be called upon to host daimyo or their retinue in case there was not enough room in the honjuku inns </ref> called the Minaguchi-ya 水口屋. The highway system and the inns that supported it were an important feature of the [[Edo Period]].<br />
<br />
Seiken-ji Temple housed nobility who were passing through Okitsu. [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] stayed there as a child according to tradition; [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] stayed there on the eve of the [[Siege of Odawara|siege of Odawara castle]], as did his teamaster [[Sen no Rikyû]]. The shogun [[Tokugawa Iemochi]] on his way to Kyoto in [[1863]], and [[Meiji Emperor|Emperor Meiji]] on his way to the new capital of Tokyo also spent the night there.<br />
<br />
At the Minaguchi-ya itself, the Itô family (founders of the Matsuzakaya department store) were regular guests by [[1691]]. Among other guests over the years were attendants of [[Kira Yoshinaka]] of Chushingura fame, [[Shimazu Hisamitsu]] of [[Satsuma province]], who gave the inn permission to use the Shimazu crest, members of the suite of the [[genro]] [[Saionji Kinmochi]] who had a close relationship with the Mochitsuki family, a member of the US occupation named Oliver Statler, and the emperor of Japan Hirohito (Shôwa). And of course among the many people passing along the Tokaido--samurai, daimyo, plotters, poets, artists, pilgrims, Dutch, gamblers--many of them must have stopped at the inn.<br />
<br />
This is written as a popular book.The bulk of the book could probably be subtitled "The Edo Period as the Japanese see it." It describes many of the famous events and cultural figures of the time as could have seen by the people at the inn. Though there is some fictionalizing, its point is to show history and culture. The amount of detail is almost incredible. Even someone who has lived decades in Japan can still come across things first known in that book.<br />
This is not a book for historians. Statler writes almost nothing about politics or the economics of the period, though the shogun-daimyo-han system is talked about. Furthermore, he avoids proper names as much as possible (probably a good idea for a popular book), and he uses popular versions of events. For instance, [[Takeda Shingen]] is killed listening to a flute. But it is usually easy to tell when he is actually fictionalizing, even without reading his discussion in the afterward.<br />
<br />
Unfortunately, the inn is no longer an inn. It went out of business in 1985, and by spring of the next year was being used by an area corporation for its private use. However, there is now a picture gallery open to the public on the grounds.<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
===Purchase Links===<br />
[[Image:XXX.gif|thumb|''Shimazu Crest'']]<br />
* [http://astore.amazon.com/samurai-20/detail/1166136787 Samurai Archives Amazon Bookstore]<br />
<br />
[[Category:History Books]]<br />
[[Category:Edo Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=User:Bethetsu/sandbox&diff=23800User:Bethetsu/sandbox2013-02-17T10:17:41Z<p>Bethetsu: Created page with "My sandbox Japanese Inn Japanese Inn by Oliver Statler, first published in 1967 and published by About X kiometers east of Shunpu in Surugu province (now Shimizu in Shizu..."</p>
<hr />
<div>My sandbox<br />
Japanese Inn<br />
Japanese Inn by Oliver Statler, first published in 1967 and published by<br />
<br />
About X kiometers east of Shunpu in [[Surugu province]] (now Shimizu in Shizuoka Prefecture) along the important [[Tokaido Highway]] lies the town of Okitsu興津, <ref>It has been recently incorporated into Shimizu.</ref> dominated by [[Seikenji Temple]] 清見寺. This book tells the history of Japan from 1550-1953 as seen through the eyes of the people of an Okitsu inn, a waki-honjuku 脇本宿, <ref>A regular inn that could be called upon to host daimyo or their retinue in case there was not enough room in the honjuku inns </ref> called the Minaguchi-ya. The highway system and the inns that supported it were an important feature of the [[Edo periol]].<br />
<br />
The Seiken-ji housed nobility who were passing through. [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] stayed there as a child according to tradition, [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi|Hideyoshi]] stayed there on the eve of the siege of [[Odawara castle]], as did his teamaster [[Sen no Rikyu|Sen no Rikyû]]. The shogun [[Tokugawa Iemochi]] on his way to Kyoto in XXXX, and [[Emperor Meij]] on his way to the new capital of Tokyo also spent the night there.<br />
<br />
At the Minaguchi-ya itself , the XX family (founders of the YY department store) were regular guests by XXXX. Among other guests over the years were attendants of [[Kiranosuke]], [[Shimazu XX]] of [[Satsuma province]], who gave the inn permission to use the Shimazu crest, members of the suite of the [[genro]] [[Saionji Kinmochi]], a member of the US occupation named Oliver Statler, and Emperor Hirohito (Shôwa). And of course among the many people passing along the Tokaido--samurai, daimyo, plotters, poets, artists, pilgrims, Dutch--many of them must have stopped at the inn.<br />
<br />
This is written as a popular book.The bulk of the book could probably be subtitled "The Edo Period as the Japanese see it." It describes many of the famous events and cultural figures of the time as could have seen by the people at the inn. Though there is some fiction, it is not like historical fiction which primarily tells a story about people of a certain period. The amount of detail is almost incredible. Even someone who has lived decades in Japan can still come across things first known in that book.<br />
This is not a book for historians. Statler writes almost nothing about politics or the economics of the period, though the shogun-daimyo-han system is talked about. Furthermore he does not bother about specifying the calendar he is using, he avoids proper names as much as possible (probably a good idea for a popular book) and he uses popular versions of events. For instance, [[Takeda Shingen]] was killed listening to a flute. But it is usally easy to tell when he is actually fictionalizing, even without reading his discussion in the afterward. For example, when he gives his source, he is not.<br />
<br />
I had long thought, "Some day (when I can afford it!) I would like to spend the night in that inn." Some time ago I was travelling by car along the Tokaido in Shizuoka and decided to at least try to see the inn. In Okitsu I kept my eyes open on the ocean side of the street, and soon found a gate with "Minaguchi-ya" written on it. However, alas, I will not be able to stay there. It has been bought up by an area corporation for their private use. According to the internet, this happened in ><br />
<br />
<references/></div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Teppo&diff=23731Teppo2013-01-26T09:29:28Z<p>Bethetsu: /* The First 30 Years */ add 1543</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Edo-teppo.JPG|right|thumb|500px|An Edo period matchlock gun. Asian Art Museum of San Francisco.]]<br />
<br />
*''Japanese'': 鉄砲 ''(teppou)''<br />
<br />
==Introduction to Japan==<br />
The introduction of the European matchlock began in [[1543]], during the appropriately named [[Sengoku period]] ("Period of the Country/Provinces at War"). At this time Japan found a trading partner in the Europeans. In [[1543]] a Portuguese ship arrived off the coast of [[Tanegashima]], south of Kyushu. One item they had was an arquebus. After trying it out, the lord of Tanegashima, Tokitaka, disregarding the high price of the arms, purchased from the aliens two pieces of the firearms for his family treasure and occupied himself ceaselessly with learning to use it. He instructed a retainer to learn to make the powder. Some local iron workers tried to copy the work, but they could not figure out how to close the end of the barrel. Fortunately the next year some more traders arrived, among whom was an iron worker, who taught how to close the barrel and about the springs. This discovery led to the production of several tens of firearms in a period of a little over a year. Tokitaka instructed his retainers to practice on the new weapon, and many beccame proficient. Later, a [[Sakai]] merchant, later known as Teppô-mata, came and stayed on the island for one or two years and learned the craft. From him, the knowledge spread throughout the country.<ref>Nanpo ''Tekkô-ki''</ref><br />
<br />
After that the Portuguese had begun to openly trade with other cities in Japan. [[Nagasaki]] had become a major trade port for trade between the Japanese and Portuguese, and the traders brought a variety of novelties including wool, velvet, tobacco, clocks and eyeglasses. But the most popular and less novel item brought to Japan by Europe, was the matchlock arquebus. <br />
<br />
Many of the ''daimyô'' were impressed after seeing the European matchlock; by [[1549]] many ''daimyô'' ordered their weaponsmiths to copy and mass-produce this advanced weapon<ref>Baker 2004</ref>. One ''daimyô'' in particular who saw potential in this weapon was [[Oda Nobunaga]]; he placed an order for 500 arquebuses, the largest order to date<ref>Turnbull p.g.135</ref>. <br />
<br />
Soon the Japanese demonstrated not only their ability to quickly assimilate objects from other cultures, but also their ability to improve upon it. Many metalsmiths went to work and even improved the ''teppô''. This weapon was found to be more powerful then the bow, and easier to use. Eventually the ''teppô'' replaced many archer units in battle<ref>Bryant p.g. 49</ref>.<br />
<br />
==A look at the Teppô==<br />
Manufacturing of this new firearm was simple; the barrel of the rifle was simple to create, simply by wrapping hot iron around a rod and force welding it shut made it, then fitting it into the stock of the gun. The gun’s firing mechanism was made from solid brass<ref>Bryant page 49</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Japanese teppo was not only easy to construct but also simple to operate. The gunner would simply hold the teppo straight using his shoulder as a brace. After opening the priming pan and pulling the trigger a spring would release the serpentine, which holds a lit fuse. As the burning fuse hit the priming pan full of powder, the matchlock would fire. Excess lengths of fuse could be wrapped around the stock of the gun or the gunner’s forearm<ref>Turnbull p.g. 137</ref>.<br />
<br />
Compared to the Japanese bow, the teppo had a more superior range. The matchlock had an effective killing range of 50 meters and a maximum range of 500 meters, compared to the bow, having a killing range of 30 meters and a maximum range of only 380 meters<ref>Bryant p.g. 49</ref>.<br />
Ammunition for the teppo came in a variety of sizes, which was measured in weight instead of diameter<ref>Bryant p.g. 35</ref>. Sizes ranged from as small as 1 monme (8.5mm) to as large as 100 monme (48mm, or nearly 2 inches in diameter). Many large caliber teppo (also known as “wall guns”) had large recoil, that bails of rice were used to support the gunners back. <br />
<br />
[[Image:Matchlockpistol.JPG|right|thumb|300px|A decorative Edo period matchlock pistol, or ''bajô zutsu''.]]<br />
Although the teppo came in a variety of calibers, many daimyo standardized their teppo’s bores; this allowed for quick loading and allowed soldiers to use each other’s ammunition, when ammo became short<ref>Turnbull p.g. 135</ref>. A well-trained warrior could fire, at most, four shots per minute.<ref>Gallery label, Edo period matchlock gun R2001.46.1, Asian Art Museum.</ref><br />
<br />
Ammunition for the matchlock was made from casting solid lead. The lead that was being used for the ammunition was a major import from Europe. It was a suitable metal because of its malleability and high density<ref>Samurai-Archives 2005; Nihon no Bijutsu #390</ref>.<br />
<br />
Matchlock pistols were also produced in Japan, at least in the Edo period, if not earlier; these were rare in Europe. Intended for used by mounted warriors, they were called ''bajô zutsu'' <!--馬上筒?-->, or "horsemen's cannon," but were in practice quite impractical. Nevertheless, they served their owners as status symbols.<ref>Gallery label, matchlock pistol 2004.39, Asian Art Museum, San Francisco.</ref><br />
<br />
==The First 30 Years==<br />
* [[1543]] <br />
** A Portuguese ship lands on Tanegashima and sells two arquebuses to the local lord. From the next year, mass manufacturing starts.<br />
<br />
* [[1548]] <br />
** Japanese pirates, "[[wako]]" armed with arquebuses were attacking Chinese coastal cities.<br />
** [[The Battle of Uedahara]]. [[Murakami Yoshikiyo]] is said to have 50 Chinese arquebuses and was the first to use them on the Japanese battlefield against [[Takeda Shingen]].<br />
<br />
* [[1549]] <br />
** The [[Shimazu clan|Shimazu]] is said to have been the first to use Portuguese arquebuses in battle on Japanese soil in the [[Siege of Kajiki]].<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's father placed an order for 500 arquebuses.<br />
<br />
* [[1550]]<br />
** The defenders of [[Ashikaga Yoshiharu|Ashikaga Yoshiharu's]] [[Nakanao castle]] were armed with arquebuses.<br />
** [[Hosokawa Harumoto|Hosokawa Harumoto's]] army had teppo ashigaru (matchlockmen) in a battle against the [[Miyoshi clan|Miyoshi]], a Miyoshi officer shot dead in the battle.<br />
<br />
* [[1553]] <br />
** Oda Nobunaga's army paraded before [[Saito Dosan]]. Nobunaga's army included 500 teppo ashigaru.<br />
<br />
* [[1554]] <br />
** Oda Nobunaga is said to have first used rotating volley fire in the [[Siege of Muraki]].<br />
<br />
* [[1555]]<br />
** [[Second Battle of Kawanakajima]], Takeda Shingen's army included at least 300 teppo ashigaru which reinforced [[Kurita Kakuju]] in [[Asahiyama castle]].<br />
<br />
* [[1560]]<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's [[Marune castle]] fell to [[Imagawa Yoshimoto]]. The castle's commander [[Sakuma Morishige]] was shot dead and the castle fell to Imagawa Yoshimoto's commander [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who used concentrated arquebus fire.<br />
<br />
* [[1563]]<br />
** Christian [[Juan Ichibu Kageyu]] used arquebus against pirates raiding [[Ikitsuki island]], sinking two of the three pirate ships. Examination of the dead pirates showed all had died from bullet wounds.<br />
** The [[Mori clan]] lost 33 men to gunfire attacking a castle. The next year the Mori used arquebuses in attacking [[Toda castle]].<br />
<br />
* [[1564]] <br />
** The [[second Battle of Azukizaka]], Tokugawa Ieyasu leading his men against the [[Ikko-ikki]] was hit several times during the battle. Bullets were lodged in his undergarments, spent after penetrating his armour.<br />
<br />
* [[1569]] <br />
** [[Kitabatake Tomonori]] used arquebus against Oda Nobunaga's invasion of [[Ise province]], but was defeated.<br />
<br />
* [[1570]]<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's army of 30,000 were forced to withdraw by a fierce counter attack of the Ikko-ikki of [[Ishiyama Honganji]]. 3,000 Ikko-ikki matchlockmen used controlled volley firing against Nobunaga's men.<br />
<br />
* [[1573]]<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's matchlockmen went against Ikko-ikki matchlockmen of [[Nagashima]]. Nobunaga lost and was forced to withdraw. An Ikko-ikki bullet narrowly missed Nobunaga's ear, killed one of his retainers.<br />
<br />
* [[1576]]<br />
** The year after the [[battle of Nagashino]]. Oda Nobunaga's troops withdrew after testing the defensive firepower of the Ikko-ikki in Ishiyama Honganji.<br />
** Nobunaga's navy was defeated by the Mori navy at the [[First Battle of Kizugawaguchi]]. Both sides used large numbers of arquebuses aboard ships.<br />
<br />
==Edo Period==<br />
Firearms continued to be used by both samurai authorities and by peasants & commoners in the [[Edo period]]. Sakai and Kunitomo continued to be the chief sites of production, and matchlocks continued to be the dominant form of firearms used; firearms technology did not advance much within Japan over the course of the 17th to mid-19th centuries. Flintlocks, which had replaced the matchlock in Europe, were known and occasionally produced, but the matchlock remained dominant in Japan, possibly in part because they produced less recoil. These sorts of muskets were by far the most common form of firearm in the country, with some estimates claiming that roughly 150,000 to 200,000 firearms were in circulation at any given time in Tokugawa Japan. Peasants' weapons generally fired shot two to three ''[[Japanese measurements|monme]]'' in weight, equivalent to .440 to .495 caliber, in today's terminology. At the request of the [[Tokugawa shogunate|shogunate]], gunsmiths also on occasion produced handguns and small cannon.<br />
<br />
[[David Howell]] argues that over the course of the period, within the countryside at least, firearms came to be seen less as weapons (i.e. for military purposes) and more as essential agricultural equipment. Peasants maintained possession of their guns after [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]'s [[Sword Hunts]] in the 1580s-90s, which specifically targeted swords, and not firearms. It was only in [[1657]] that regulations on peasant ownership of weapons began to be put into place; even then, hunters, and farmers who claimed they needed guns to help defend themselves and their crops against wild boar and other such threats, were permitted to continue to own firearms. Physically identical weapons came to be divided into categories according to their use, with ''ryôshi teppô'' being used for hunting, and ''odoshi teppô'' being used for scaring away animals, i.e. for protection of people, homes, and crops. There was a third category, ''yôjin teppô'', used for protection, that is, self-defense, against other people, but up until the [[Bakumatsu period]], such licenses were only issued extremely rarely. Once licensed as being dedicated to one of these designated uses, a given weapon would continue to possess that identity, even as it was passed down through the generations, and would not generally be seen as something to be used for the other purpose. Amidst the numerous accounts of fist-fights and sword deaths in street brawls in Edo period Japan, there are no records of anyone using a firearm to shoot another person, in a street brawl or the like; guns were, however, used to sound signals or warnings.<br />
<br />
Three months after the death of [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]] in [[1709]], whose reputation today continues to associate him with compassion policies for the protection of animals, gun policies changed somewhat, and farmers were permitted for the first time to employ live ammunition rather than blanks in scaring away animals. A series of edicts issued in the 1720s not only permitted the use of weapons by peasants year-round, but actually encouraged their use, and the borrowing of weapons, for the purposes of scaring away animals.<br />
<br />
However, the use of firearms for this purpose, and their use in hunting, were still maintained as starkly different categories in the eyes of the authorities. Hunters hunted as their chief source of livelihood, and so for them guns were seen as necessities, and as symbols of their identity, and they were thus permitted to own guns outright. For farmers, however, guns were seen as something needed only temporarily, in those instances when threatened by animals, though in point of fact this "temporary" need might recur season after season, down through the generations. Farmers' guns, therefore, were generally not owned by the peasants, but were instead on loan from the authorities, at least nominally; in some cases, peasants physically borrowed the weapons from samurai, but in many cases, they kept the weapons, passing them on down the generations, though they were still nominally not seen as the property of the peasant household. Some guns were designated "two-season guns," to be used only at the height of the growing season, and to be, in theory at least, returned to the authorities during the rest of the year; other weapons were considered "four-season guns," though even these, in theory, were to be returned for a few days out of each year, and then re-borrowed if circumstances in the new year demanded it. Most likely, more often than not, guns were not physically returned and re-borrowed in this way, but were simply kept, as if on extended loan.<br />
<br />
As a result of not officially owning the guns, peasants had to request formal permission to repair or replace broken weapons, as well as when transferring weapons, and their associated licenses (written on small wooden boards), to their heirs or to others. Shogunal authorities exercised relatively direct control in these matters initially, in the 17th century, but after the 1720s, in at least some regions of the archipelago, villages began to take greater control over such matters, authorizing their residents to make such repairs, replacements, and transfers of ownership.<br />
<br />
In the early 19th century, the shogunate began to worry about the amorphous imagined threat of "[[akuto|bad guys]]" - including [[ronin|rônin]], jobless commoners, and the like - hoarding weapons and planning violence or other criminal activities. Numerous edicts banned peasants from engaging in martial activities, including firing practice. Surveys uncovered a considerable number of "hidden" unregistered guns in peasant villages, most of them being kept in plain sight and (we might presume) used in a normal fashion, but simply not properly registered, as a result of the complexities of shogunal requirements on these matters. The shogunate thus gained a more solid, or accurate, impression of how many guns were in circulation, and confiscated many of them, reducing the number available to undesirable elements (as well as to upright citizens). Villagers took matters into their own hands, as well, setting booby traps and the like, and arming themselves against bandits and marauding gangs of ''rônin''.<br />
<br />
===Bakumatsu===<br />
Firearms, used by peasants throughout most of the Edo period as equipment for hunting or protecting their land from animals, thus regained their identity as weapons by the 1840s or so. In the final years of the shogunate, the authorities began to muster groups of peasants already skilled with firearms and to use them as local patrols; some were even trained in the use of cannon. They were, at times, invited to simply take matters into their own hands, or implicitly deputized, to use their weapons to defend their communities against "bad guys"; organized peasant gun squads were also used to help suppress both samurai uprisings such as the [[Tenguto Rebellion|Tengutô Uprising]] in [[1864]], and peasant uprisings such as the [[Bushu ikki|Bushû Uprising]] in [[1866]].<br />
<br />
Similar developments occurred at the domainal level as well, within at least some of the ''han''. [[Hiroshima han]], for example, had enforced restrictions on peasant ownership of guns for most of the Edo period, but in 1863-1864, reversed those policies, encouraging peasants to arm themselves, and encouraging, too, a market for the trade in firearms within the domain. The aim was to employ the peasants to help defend the domain from both inland troubles and piracy or other sorts of maritime/coastal attacks coming from the [[Inland Sea]].<br />
<br />
==Meiji Period==<br />
For a few years, the [[Meiji government]] allowed peasants to continue to possess and use firearms for protecting their homes from animals. However, in [[1876]], strict regulations were put into place restricting private ownership of guns, which were now held chiefly only by members of the police force and [[military conscription|conscript]] [[Imperial Japanese Army|military]].<br />
<br />
==Notes to the Text==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*Samurai 1150-1600 [[AJ Bryant|Anthony J. Bryant]] 1994, New York<br />
*Sekigahara 1600 Anthony J. Bryant 1995, New York<br />
*Arms and Armor of the Samurai: History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan Ian Bottomley and A.P. Hopson 1996, New York<br />
*Nanpo Bunshi, ''Teppô-ki'', c. 1604, translated in Tsunoda, et al., ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', New York: Columbia University Press,1958, pp. 308-312.<br />
*[[David Howell]]. "The Social Life of Firearms in Tokugawa Japan." ''Japanese Studies'' 29:1 (2009), 65-80.<br />
*Samurai and Illustrated History Mitsuo Kuri 2002, Tokyo<br />
*The Battle of Nagashino Nathan Ledbetter http://www.samurai-archives.com/ban.html<br />
*Japanese Castles 1540-1640 (Fortresses) Dr. Stephen Turnbull 2003, New York<br />
*Samurai Warfare Dr. Stephen Turnbull 1996, London<br />
*The Samurai Sourcebook Dr. Stephen Turnbull 2000, London<br />
*Nihon no Bijutsu #360 1996, Tokyo<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arms and Armor]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Teppo&diff=23730Teppo2013-01-26T09:25:44Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Sources */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Edo-teppo.JPG|right|thumb|500px|An Edo period matchlock gun. Asian Art Museum of San Francisco.]]<br />
<br />
*''Japanese'': 鉄砲 ''(teppou)''<br />
<br />
==Introduction to Japan==<br />
The introduction of the European matchlock began in [[1543]], during the appropriately named [[Sengoku period]] ("Period of the Country/Provinces at War"). At this time Japan found a trading partner in the Europeans. In [[1543]] a Portuguese ship arrived off the coast of [[Tanegashima]], south of Kyushu. One item they had was an arquebus. After trying it out, the lord of Tanegashima, Tokitaka, disregarding the high price of the arms, purchased from the aliens two pieces of the firearms for his family treasure and occupied himself ceaselessly with learning to use it. He instructed a retainer to learn to make the powder. Some local iron workers tried to copy the work, but they could not figure out how to close the end of the barrel. Fortunately the next year some more traders arrived, among whom was an iron worker, who taught how to close the barrel and about the springs. This discovery led to the production of several tens of firearms in a period of a little over a year. Tokitaka instructed his retainers to practice on the new weapon, and many beccame proficient. Later, a [[Sakai]] merchant, later known as Teppô-mata, came and stayed on the island for one or two years and learned the craft. From him, the knowledge spread throughout the country.<ref>Nanpo ''Tekkô-ki''</ref><br />
<br />
After that the Portuguese had begun to openly trade with other cities in Japan. [[Nagasaki]] had become a major trade port for trade between the Japanese and Portuguese, and the traders brought a variety of novelties including wool, velvet, tobacco, clocks and eyeglasses. But the most popular and less novel item brought to Japan by Europe, was the matchlock arquebus. <br />
<br />
Many of the ''daimyô'' were impressed after seeing the European matchlock; by [[1549]] many ''daimyô'' ordered their weaponsmiths to copy and mass-produce this advanced weapon<ref>Baker 2004</ref>. One ''daimyô'' in particular who saw potential in this weapon was [[Oda Nobunaga]]; he placed an order for 500 arquebuses, the largest order to date<ref>Turnbull p.g.135</ref>. <br />
<br />
Soon the Japanese demonstrated not only their ability to quickly assimilate objects from other cultures, but also their ability to improve upon it. Many metalsmiths went to work and even improved the ''teppô''. This weapon was found to be more powerful then the bow, and easier to use. Eventually the ''teppô'' replaced many archer units in battle<ref>Bryant p.g. 49</ref>.<br />
<br />
==A look at the Teppô==<br />
Manufacturing of this new firearm was simple; the barrel of the rifle was simple to create, simply by wrapping hot iron around a rod and force welding it shut made it, then fitting it into the stock of the gun. The gun’s firing mechanism was made from solid brass<ref>Bryant page 49</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Japanese teppo was not only easy to construct but also simple to operate. The gunner would simply hold the teppo straight using his shoulder as a brace. After opening the priming pan and pulling the trigger a spring would release the serpentine, which holds a lit fuse. As the burning fuse hit the priming pan full of powder, the matchlock would fire. Excess lengths of fuse could be wrapped around the stock of the gun or the gunner’s forearm<ref>Turnbull p.g. 137</ref>.<br />
<br />
Compared to the Japanese bow, the teppo had a more superior range. The matchlock had an effective killing range of 50 meters and a maximum range of 500 meters, compared to the bow, having a killing range of 30 meters and a maximum range of only 380 meters<ref>Bryant p.g. 49</ref>.<br />
Ammunition for the teppo came in a variety of sizes, which was measured in weight instead of diameter<ref>Bryant p.g. 35</ref>. Sizes ranged from as small as 1 monme (8.5mm) to as large as 100 monme (48mm, or nearly 2 inches in diameter). Many large caliber teppo (also known as “wall guns”) had large recoil, that bails of rice were used to support the gunners back. <br />
<br />
[[Image:Matchlockpistol.JPG|right|thumb|300px|A decorative Edo period matchlock pistol, or ''bajô zutsu''.]]<br />
Although the teppo came in a variety of calibers, many daimyo standardized their teppo’s bores; this allowed for quick loading and allowed soldiers to use each other’s ammunition, when ammo became short<ref>Turnbull p.g. 135</ref>. A well-trained warrior could fire, at most, four shots per minute.<ref>Gallery label, Edo period matchlock gun R2001.46.1, Asian Art Museum.</ref><br />
<br />
Ammunition for the matchlock was made from casting solid lead. The lead that was being used for the ammunition was a major import from Europe. It was a suitable metal because of its malleability and high density<ref>Samurai-Archives 2005; Nihon no Bijutsu #390</ref>.<br />
<br />
Matchlock pistols were also produced in Japan, at least in the Edo period, if not earlier; these were rare in Europe. Intended for used by mounted warriors, they were called ''bajô zutsu'' <!--馬上筒?-->, or "horsemen's cannon," but were in practice quite impractical. Nevertheless, they served their owners as status symbols.<ref>Gallery label, matchlock pistol 2004.39, Asian Art Museum, San Francisco.</ref><br />
<br />
==The First 30 Years==<br />
* [[1548]] <br />
** Japanese pirates, "[[wako]]" armed with arquebuses were attacking Chinese coastal cities.<br />
** [[The Battle of Uedahara]]. [[Murakami Yoshikiyo]] is said to have 50 Chinese arquebuses and was the first to use them on the Japanese battlefield against [[Takeda Shingen]].<br />
<br />
* [[1549]] <br />
** The [[Shimazu clan|Shimazu]] is said to have been the first to use Portuguese arquebuses in battle on Japanese soil in the [[Siege of Kajiki]].<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's father placed an order for 500 arquebuses.<br />
<br />
* [[1550]]<br />
** The defenders of [[Ashikaga Yoshiharu|Ashikaga Yoshiharu's]] [[Nakanao castle]] were armed with arquebuses.<br />
** [[Hosokawa Harumoto|Hosokawa Harumoto's]] army had teppo ashigaru (matchlockmen) in a battle against the [[Miyoshi clan|Miyoshi]], a Miyoshi officer shot dead in the battle.<br />
<br />
* [[1553]] <br />
** Oda Nobunaga's army paraded before [[Saito Dosan]]. Nobunaga's army included 500 teppo ashigaru.<br />
<br />
* [[1554]] <br />
** Oda Nobunaga is said to have first used rotating volley fire in the [[Siege of Muraki]].<br />
<br />
* [[1555]]<br />
** [[Second Battle of Kawanakajima]], Takeda Shingen's army included at least 300 teppo ashigaru which reinforced [[Kurita Kakuju]] in [[Asahiyama castle]].<br />
<br />
* [[1560]]<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's [[Marune castle]] fell to [[Imagawa Yoshimoto]]. The castle's commander [[Sakuma Morishige]] was shot dead and the castle fell to Imagawa Yoshimoto's commander [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who used concentrated arquebus fire.<br />
<br />
* [[1563]]<br />
** Christian [[Juan Ichibu Kageyu]] used arquebus against pirates raiding [[Ikitsuki island]], sinking two of the three pirate ships. Examination of the dead pirates showed all had died from bullet wounds.<br />
** The [[Mori clan]] lost 33 men to gunfire attacking a castle. The next year the Mori used arquebuses in attacking [[Toda castle]].<br />
<br />
* [[1564]] <br />
** The [[second Battle of Azukizaka]], Tokugawa Ieyasu leading his men against the [[Ikko-ikki]] was hit several times during the battle. Bullets were lodged in his undergarments, spent after penetrating his armour.<br />
<br />
* [[1569]] <br />
** [[Kitabatake Tomonori]] used arquebus against Oda Nobunaga's invasion of [[Ise province]], but was defeated.<br />
<br />
* [[1570]]<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's army of 30,000 were forced to withdraw by a fierce counter attack of the Ikko-ikki of [[Ishiyama Honganji]]. 3,000 Ikko-ikki matchlockmen used controlled volley firing against Nobunaga's men.<br />
<br />
* [[1573]]<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's matchlockmen went against Ikko-ikki matchlockmen of [[Nagashima]]. Nobunaga lost and was forced to withdraw. An Ikko-ikki bullet narrowly missed Nobunaga's ear, killed one of his retainers.<br />
<br />
* [[1576]]<br />
** The year after the [[battle of Nagashino]]. Oda Nobunaga's troops withdrew after testing the defensive firepower of the Ikko-ikki in Ishiyama Honganji.<br />
** Nobunaga's navy was defeated by the Mori navy at the [[First Battle of Kizugawaguchi]]. Both sides used large numbers of arquebuses aboard ships.<br />
<br />
==Edo Period==<br />
Firearms continued to be used by both samurai authorities and by peasants & commoners in the [[Edo period]]. Sakai and Kunitomo continued to be the chief sites of production, and matchlocks continued to be the dominant form of firearms used; firearms technology did not advance much within Japan over the course of the 17th to mid-19th centuries. Flintlocks, which had replaced the matchlock in Europe, were known and occasionally produced, but the matchlock remained dominant in Japan, possibly in part because they produced less recoil. These sorts of muskets were by far the most common form of firearm in the country, with some estimates claiming that roughly 150,000 to 200,000 firearms were in circulation at any given time in Tokugawa Japan. Peasants' weapons generally fired shot two to three ''[[Japanese measurements|monme]]'' in weight, equivalent to .440 to .495 caliber, in today's terminology. At the request of the [[Tokugawa shogunate|shogunate]], gunsmiths also on occasion produced handguns and small cannon.<br />
<br />
[[David Howell]] argues that over the course of the period, within the countryside at least, firearms came to be seen less as weapons (i.e. for military purposes) and more as essential agricultural equipment. Peasants maintained possession of their guns after [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]'s [[Sword Hunts]] in the 1580s-90s, which specifically targeted swords, and not firearms. It was only in [[1657]] that regulations on peasant ownership of weapons began to be put into place; even then, hunters, and farmers who claimed they needed guns to help defend themselves and their crops against wild boar and other such threats, were permitted to continue to own firearms. Physically identical weapons came to be divided into categories according to their use, with ''ryôshi teppô'' being used for hunting, and ''odoshi teppô'' being used for scaring away animals, i.e. for protection of people, homes, and crops. There was a third category, ''yôjin teppô'', used for protection, that is, self-defense, against other people, but up until the [[Bakumatsu period]], such licenses were only issued extremely rarely. Once licensed as being dedicated to one of these designated uses, a given weapon would continue to possess that identity, even as it was passed down through the generations, and would not generally be seen as something to be used for the other purpose. Amidst the numerous accounts of fist-fights and sword deaths in street brawls in Edo period Japan, there are no records of anyone using a firearm to shoot another person, in a street brawl or the like; guns were, however, used to sound signals or warnings.<br />
<br />
Three months after the death of [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]] in [[1709]], whose reputation today continues to associate him with compassion policies for the protection of animals, gun policies changed somewhat, and farmers were permitted for the first time to employ live ammunition rather than blanks in scaring away animals. A series of edicts issued in the 1720s not only permitted the use of weapons by peasants year-round, but actually encouraged their use, and the borrowing of weapons, for the purposes of scaring away animals.<br />
<br />
However, the use of firearms for this purpose, and their use in hunting, were still maintained as starkly different categories in the eyes of the authorities. Hunters hunted as their chief source of livelihood, and so for them guns were seen as necessities, and as symbols of their identity, and they were thus permitted to own guns outright. For farmers, however, guns were seen as something needed only temporarily, in those instances when threatened by animals, though in point of fact this "temporary" need might recur season after season, down through the generations. Farmers' guns, therefore, were generally not owned by the peasants, but were instead on loan from the authorities, at least nominally; in some cases, peasants physically borrowed the weapons from samurai, but in many cases, they kept the weapons, passing them on down the generations, though they were still nominally not seen as the property of the peasant household. Some guns were designated "two-season guns," to be used only at the height of the growing season, and to be, in theory at least, returned to the authorities during the rest of the year; other weapons were considered "four-season guns," though even these, in theory, were to be returned for a few days out of each year, and then re-borrowed if circumstances in the new year demanded it. Most likely, more often than not, guns were not physically returned and re-borrowed in this way, but were simply kept, as if on extended loan.<br />
<br />
As a result of not officially owning the guns, peasants had to request formal permission to repair or replace broken weapons, as well as when transferring weapons, and their associated licenses (written on small wooden boards), to their heirs or to others. Shogunal authorities exercised relatively direct control in these matters initially, in the 17th century, but after the 1720s, in at least some regions of the archipelago, villages began to take greater control over such matters, authorizing their residents to make such repairs, replacements, and transfers of ownership.<br />
<br />
In the early 19th century, the shogunate began to worry about the amorphous imagined threat of "[[akuto|bad guys]]" - including [[ronin|rônin]], jobless commoners, and the like - hoarding weapons and planning violence or other criminal activities. Numerous edicts banned peasants from engaging in martial activities, including firing practice. Surveys uncovered a considerable number of "hidden" unregistered guns in peasant villages, most of them being kept in plain sight and (we might presume) used in a normal fashion, but simply not properly registered, as a result of the complexities of shogunal requirements on these matters. The shogunate thus gained a more solid, or accurate, impression of how many guns were in circulation, and confiscated many of them, reducing the number available to undesirable elements (as well as to upright citizens). Villagers took matters into their own hands, as well, setting booby traps and the like, and arming themselves against bandits and marauding gangs of ''rônin''.<br />
<br />
===Bakumatsu===<br />
Firearms, used by peasants throughout most of the Edo period as equipment for hunting or protecting their land from animals, thus regained their identity as weapons by the 1840s or so. In the final years of the shogunate, the authorities began to muster groups of peasants already skilled with firearms and to use them as local patrols; some were even trained in the use of cannon. They were, at times, invited to simply take matters into their own hands, or implicitly deputized, to use their weapons to defend their communities against "bad guys"; organized peasant gun squads were also used to help suppress both samurai uprisings such as the [[Tenguto Rebellion|Tengutô Uprising]] in [[1864]], and peasant uprisings such as the [[Bushu ikki|Bushû Uprising]] in [[1866]].<br />
<br />
Similar developments occurred at the domainal level as well, within at least some of the ''han''. [[Hiroshima han]], for example, had enforced restrictions on peasant ownership of guns for most of the Edo period, but in 1863-1864, reversed those policies, encouraging peasants to arm themselves, and encouraging, too, a market for the trade in firearms within the domain. The aim was to employ the peasants to help defend the domain from both inland troubles and piracy or other sorts of maritime/coastal attacks coming from the [[Inland Sea]].<br />
<br />
==Meiji Period==<br />
For a few years, the [[Meiji government]] allowed peasants to continue to possess and use firearms for protecting their homes from animals. However, in [[1876]], strict regulations were put into place restricting private ownership of guns, which were now held chiefly only by members of the police force and [[military conscription|conscript]] [[Imperial Japanese Army|military]].<br />
<br />
==Notes to the Text==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*Samurai 1150-1600 [[AJ Bryant|Anthony J. Bryant]] 1994, New York<br />
*Sekigahara 1600 Anthony J. Bryant 1995, New York<br />
*Arms and Armor of the Samurai: History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan Ian Bottomley and A.P. Hopson 1996, New York<br />
*Nanpo Bunshi, ''Teppô-ki'', c. 1604, translated in Tsunoda, et al., ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', New York: Columbia University Press,1958, pp. 308-312.<br />
*[[David Howell]]. "The Social Life of Firearms in Tokugawa Japan." ''Japanese Studies'' 29:1 (2009), 65-80.<br />
*Samurai and Illustrated History Mitsuo Kuri 2002, Tokyo<br />
*The Battle of Nagashino Nathan Ledbetter http://www.samurai-archives.com/ban.html<br />
*Japanese Castles 1540-1640 (Fortresses) Dr. Stephen Turnbull 2003, New York<br />
*Samurai Warfare Dr. Stephen Turnbull 1996, London<br />
*The Samurai Sourcebook Dr. Stephen Turnbull 2000, London<br />
*Nihon no Bijutsu #360 1996, Tokyo<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arms and Armor]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Teppo&diff=23729Teppo2013-01-26T09:20:40Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Introduction to Japan */ Rewrote based on Teppô-ki</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Edo-teppo.JPG|right|thumb|500px|An Edo period matchlock gun. Asian Art Museum of San Francisco.]]<br />
<br />
*''Japanese'': 鉄砲 ''(teppou)''<br />
<br />
==Introduction to Japan==<br />
The introduction of the European matchlock began in [[1543]], during the appropriately named [[Sengoku period]] ("Period of the Country/Provinces at War"). At this time Japan found a trading partner in the Europeans. In [[1543]] a Portuguese ship arrived off the coast of [[Tanegashima]], south of Kyushu. One item they had was an arquebus. After trying it out, the lord of Tanegashima, Tokitaka, disregarding the high price of the arms, purchased from the aliens two pieces of the firearms for his family treasure and occupied himself ceaselessly with learning to use it. He instructed a retainer to learn to make the powder. Some local iron workers tried to copy the work, but they could not figure out how to close the end of the barrel. Fortunately the next year some more traders arrived, among whom was an iron worker, who taught how to close the barrel and about the springs. This discovery led to the production of several tens of firearms in a period of a little over a year. Tokitaka instructed his retainers to practice on the new weapon, and many beccame proficient. Later, a [[Sakai]] merchant, later known as Teppô-mata, came and stayed on the island for one or two years and learned the craft. From him, the knowledge spread throughout the country.<ref>Nanpo ''Tekkô-ki''</ref><br />
<br />
After that the Portuguese had begun to openly trade with other cities in Japan. [[Nagasaki]] had become a major trade port for trade between the Japanese and Portuguese, and the traders brought a variety of novelties including wool, velvet, tobacco, clocks and eyeglasses. But the most popular and less novel item brought to Japan by Europe, was the matchlock arquebus. <br />
<br />
Many of the ''daimyô'' were impressed after seeing the European matchlock; by [[1549]] many ''daimyô'' ordered their weaponsmiths to copy and mass-produce this advanced weapon<ref>Baker 2004</ref>. One ''daimyô'' in particular who saw potential in this weapon was [[Oda Nobunaga]]; he placed an order for 500 arquebuses, the largest order to date<ref>Turnbull p.g.135</ref>. <br />
<br />
Soon the Japanese demonstrated not only their ability to quickly assimilate objects from other cultures, but also their ability to improve upon it. Many metalsmiths went to work and even improved the ''teppô''. This weapon was found to be more powerful then the bow, and easier to use. Eventually the ''teppô'' replaced many archer units in battle<ref>Bryant p.g. 49</ref>.<br />
<br />
==A look at the Teppô==<br />
Manufacturing of this new firearm was simple; the barrel of the rifle was simple to create, simply by wrapping hot iron around a rod and force welding it shut made it, then fitting it into the stock of the gun. The gun’s firing mechanism was made from solid brass<ref>Bryant page 49</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Japanese teppo was not only easy to construct but also simple to operate. The gunner would simply hold the teppo straight using his shoulder as a brace. After opening the priming pan and pulling the trigger a spring would release the serpentine, which holds a lit fuse. As the burning fuse hit the priming pan full of powder, the matchlock would fire. Excess lengths of fuse could be wrapped around the stock of the gun or the gunner’s forearm<ref>Turnbull p.g. 137</ref>.<br />
<br />
Compared to the Japanese bow, the teppo had a more superior range. The matchlock had an effective killing range of 50 meters and a maximum range of 500 meters, compared to the bow, having a killing range of 30 meters and a maximum range of only 380 meters<ref>Bryant p.g. 49</ref>.<br />
Ammunition for the teppo came in a variety of sizes, which was measured in weight instead of diameter<ref>Bryant p.g. 35</ref>. Sizes ranged from as small as 1 monme (8.5mm) to as large as 100 monme (48mm, or nearly 2 inches in diameter). Many large caliber teppo (also known as “wall guns”) had large recoil, that bails of rice were used to support the gunners back. <br />
<br />
[[Image:Matchlockpistol.JPG|right|thumb|300px|A decorative Edo period matchlock pistol, or ''bajô zutsu''.]]<br />
Although the teppo came in a variety of calibers, many daimyo standardized their teppo’s bores; this allowed for quick loading and allowed soldiers to use each other’s ammunition, when ammo became short<ref>Turnbull p.g. 135</ref>. A well-trained warrior could fire, at most, four shots per minute.<ref>Gallery label, Edo period matchlock gun R2001.46.1, Asian Art Museum.</ref><br />
<br />
Ammunition for the matchlock was made from casting solid lead. The lead that was being used for the ammunition was a major import from Europe. It was a suitable metal because of its malleability and high density<ref>Samurai-Archives 2005; Nihon no Bijutsu #390</ref>.<br />
<br />
Matchlock pistols were also produced in Japan, at least in the Edo period, if not earlier; these were rare in Europe. Intended for used by mounted warriors, they were called ''bajô zutsu'' <!--馬上筒?-->, or "horsemen's cannon," but were in practice quite impractical. Nevertheless, they served their owners as status symbols.<ref>Gallery label, matchlock pistol 2004.39, Asian Art Museum, San Francisco.</ref><br />
<br />
==The First 30 Years==<br />
* [[1548]] <br />
** Japanese pirates, "[[wako]]" armed with arquebuses were attacking Chinese coastal cities.<br />
** [[The Battle of Uedahara]]. [[Murakami Yoshikiyo]] is said to have 50 Chinese arquebuses and was the first to use them on the Japanese battlefield against [[Takeda Shingen]].<br />
<br />
* [[1549]] <br />
** The [[Shimazu clan|Shimazu]] is said to have been the first to use Portuguese arquebuses in battle on Japanese soil in the [[Siege of Kajiki]].<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's father placed an order for 500 arquebuses.<br />
<br />
* [[1550]]<br />
** The defenders of [[Ashikaga Yoshiharu|Ashikaga Yoshiharu's]] [[Nakanao castle]] were armed with arquebuses.<br />
** [[Hosokawa Harumoto|Hosokawa Harumoto's]] army had teppo ashigaru (matchlockmen) in a battle against the [[Miyoshi clan|Miyoshi]], a Miyoshi officer shot dead in the battle.<br />
<br />
* [[1553]] <br />
** Oda Nobunaga's army paraded before [[Saito Dosan]]. Nobunaga's army included 500 teppo ashigaru.<br />
<br />
* [[1554]] <br />
** Oda Nobunaga is said to have first used rotating volley fire in the [[Siege of Muraki]].<br />
<br />
* [[1555]]<br />
** [[Second Battle of Kawanakajima]], Takeda Shingen's army included at least 300 teppo ashigaru which reinforced [[Kurita Kakuju]] in [[Asahiyama castle]].<br />
<br />
* [[1560]]<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's [[Marune castle]] fell to [[Imagawa Yoshimoto]]. The castle's commander [[Sakuma Morishige]] was shot dead and the castle fell to Imagawa Yoshimoto's commander [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who used concentrated arquebus fire.<br />
<br />
* [[1563]]<br />
** Christian [[Juan Ichibu Kageyu]] used arquebus against pirates raiding [[Ikitsuki island]], sinking two of the three pirate ships. Examination of the dead pirates showed all had died from bullet wounds.<br />
** The [[Mori clan]] lost 33 men to gunfire attacking a castle. The next year the Mori used arquebuses in attacking [[Toda castle]].<br />
<br />
* [[1564]] <br />
** The [[second Battle of Azukizaka]], Tokugawa Ieyasu leading his men against the [[Ikko-ikki]] was hit several times during the battle. Bullets were lodged in his undergarments, spent after penetrating his armour.<br />
<br />
* [[1569]] <br />
** [[Kitabatake Tomonori]] used arquebus against Oda Nobunaga's invasion of [[Ise province]], but was defeated.<br />
<br />
* [[1570]]<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's army of 30,000 were forced to withdraw by a fierce counter attack of the Ikko-ikki of [[Ishiyama Honganji]]. 3,000 Ikko-ikki matchlockmen used controlled volley firing against Nobunaga's men.<br />
<br />
* [[1573]]<br />
** Oda Nobunaga's matchlockmen went against Ikko-ikki matchlockmen of [[Nagashima]]. Nobunaga lost and was forced to withdraw. An Ikko-ikki bullet narrowly missed Nobunaga's ear, killed one of his retainers.<br />
<br />
* [[1576]]<br />
** The year after the [[battle of Nagashino]]. Oda Nobunaga's troops withdrew after testing the defensive firepower of the Ikko-ikki in Ishiyama Honganji.<br />
** Nobunaga's navy was defeated by the Mori navy at the [[First Battle of Kizugawaguchi]]. Both sides used large numbers of arquebuses aboard ships.<br />
<br />
==Edo Period==<br />
Firearms continued to be used by both samurai authorities and by peasants & commoners in the [[Edo period]]. Sakai and Kunitomo continued to be the chief sites of production, and matchlocks continued to be the dominant form of firearms used; firearms technology did not advance much within Japan over the course of the 17th to mid-19th centuries. Flintlocks, which had replaced the matchlock in Europe, were known and occasionally produced, but the matchlock remained dominant in Japan, possibly in part because they produced less recoil. These sorts of muskets were by far the most common form of firearm in the country, with some estimates claiming that roughly 150,000 to 200,000 firearms were in circulation at any given time in Tokugawa Japan. Peasants' weapons generally fired shot two to three ''[[Japanese measurements|monme]]'' in weight, equivalent to .440 to .495 caliber, in today's terminology. At the request of the [[Tokugawa shogunate|shogunate]], gunsmiths also on occasion produced handguns and small cannon.<br />
<br />
[[David Howell]] argues that over the course of the period, within the countryside at least, firearms came to be seen less as weapons (i.e. for military purposes) and more as essential agricultural equipment. Peasants maintained possession of their guns after [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]'s [[Sword Hunts]] in the 1580s-90s, which specifically targeted swords, and not firearms. It was only in [[1657]] that regulations on peasant ownership of weapons began to be put into place; even then, hunters, and farmers who claimed they needed guns to help defend themselves and their crops against wild boar and other such threats, were permitted to continue to own firearms. Physically identical weapons came to be divided into categories according to their use, with ''ryôshi teppô'' being used for hunting, and ''odoshi teppô'' being used for scaring away animals, i.e. for protection of people, homes, and crops. There was a third category, ''yôjin teppô'', used for protection, that is, self-defense, against other people, but up until the [[Bakumatsu period]], such licenses were only issued extremely rarely. Once licensed as being dedicated to one of these designated uses, a given weapon would continue to possess that identity, even as it was passed down through the generations, and would not generally be seen as something to be used for the other purpose. Amidst the numerous accounts of fist-fights and sword deaths in street brawls in Edo period Japan, there are no records of anyone using a firearm to shoot another person, in a street brawl or the like; guns were, however, used to sound signals or warnings.<br />
<br />
Three months after the death of [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]] in [[1709]], whose reputation today continues to associate him with compassion policies for the protection of animals, gun policies changed somewhat, and farmers were permitted for the first time to employ live ammunition rather than blanks in scaring away animals. A series of edicts issued in the 1720s not only permitted the use of weapons by peasants year-round, but actually encouraged their use, and the borrowing of weapons, for the purposes of scaring away animals.<br />
<br />
However, the use of firearms for this purpose, and their use in hunting, were still maintained as starkly different categories in the eyes of the authorities. Hunters hunted as their chief source of livelihood, and so for them guns were seen as necessities, and as symbols of their identity, and they were thus permitted to own guns outright. For farmers, however, guns were seen as something needed only temporarily, in those instances when threatened by animals, though in point of fact this "temporary" need might recur season after season, down through the generations. Farmers' guns, therefore, were generally not owned by the peasants, but were instead on loan from the authorities, at least nominally; in some cases, peasants physically borrowed the weapons from samurai, but in many cases, they kept the weapons, passing them on down the generations, though they were still nominally not seen as the property of the peasant household. Some guns were designated "two-season guns," to be used only at the height of the growing season, and to be, in theory at least, returned to the authorities during the rest of the year; other weapons were considered "four-season guns," though even these, in theory, were to be returned for a few days out of each year, and then re-borrowed if circumstances in the new year demanded it. Most likely, more often than not, guns were not physically returned and re-borrowed in this way, but were simply kept, as if on extended loan.<br />
<br />
As a result of not officially owning the guns, peasants had to request formal permission to repair or replace broken weapons, as well as when transferring weapons, and their associated licenses (written on small wooden boards), to their heirs or to others. Shogunal authorities exercised relatively direct control in these matters initially, in the 17th century, but after the 1720s, in at least some regions of the archipelago, villages began to take greater control over such matters, authorizing their residents to make such repairs, replacements, and transfers of ownership.<br />
<br />
In the early 19th century, the shogunate began to worry about the amorphous imagined threat of "[[akuto|bad guys]]" - including [[ronin|rônin]], jobless commoners, and the like - hoarding weapons and planning violence or other criminal activities. Numerous edicts banned peasants from engaging in martial activities, including firing practice. Surveys uncovered a considerable number of "hidden" unregistered guns in peasant villages, most of them being kept in plain sight and (we might presume) used in a normal fashion, but simply not properly registered, as a result of the complexities of shogunal requirements on these matters. The shogunate thus gained a more solid, or accurate, impression of how many guns were in circulation, and confiscated many of them, reducing the number available to undesirable elements (as well as to upright citizens). Villagers took matters into their own hands, as well, setting booby traps and the like, and arming themselves against bandits and marauding gangs of ''rônin''.<br />
<br />
===Bakumatsu===<br />
Firearms, used by peasants throughout most of the Edo period as equipment for hunting or protecting their land from animals, thus regained their identity as weapons by the 1840s or so. In the final years of the shogunate, the authorities began to muster groups of peasants already skilled with firearms and to use them as local patrols; some were even trained in the use of cannon. They were, at times, invited to simply take matters into their own hands, or implicitly deputized, to use their weapons to defend their communities against "bad guys"; organized peasant gun squads were also used to help suppress both samurai uprisings such as the [[Tenguto Rebellion|Tengutô Uprising]] in [[1864]], and peasant uprisings such as the [[Bushu ikki|Bushû Uprising]] in [[1866]].<br />
<br />
Similar developments occurred at the domainal level as well, within at least some of the ''han''. [[Hiroshima han]], for example, had enforced restrictions on peasant ownership of guns for most of the Edo period, but in 1863-1864, reversed those policies, encouraging peasants to arm themselves, and encouraging, too, a market for the trade in firearms within the domain. The aim was to employ the peasants to help defend the domain from both inland troubles and piracy or other sorts of maritime/coastal attacks coming from the [[Inland Sea]].<br />
<br />
==Meiji Period==<br />
For a few years, the [[Meiji government]] allowed peasants to continue to possess and use firearms for protecting their homes from animals. However, in [[1876]], strict regulations were put into place restricting private ownership of guns, which were now held chiefly only by members of the police force and [[military conscription|conscript]] [[Imperial Japanese Army|military]].<br />
<br />
==Notes to the Text==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*Samurai 1150-1600 [[AJ Bryant|Anthony J. Bryant]] 1994, New York<br />
*Sekigahara 1600 Anthony J. Bryant 1995, New York<br />
*Arms and Armor of the Samurai: History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan Ian Bottomley and A.P. Hopson 1996, New York<br />
*[[David Howell]]. "The Social Life of Firearms in Tokugawa Japan." ''Japanese Studies'' 29:1 (2009), 65-80.<br />
*Samurai and Illustrated History Mitsuo Kuri 2002, Tokyo<br />
*The Battle of Nagashino Nathan Ledbetter http://www.samurai-archives.com/ban.html<br />
*Japanese Castles 1540-1640 (Fortresses) Dr. Stephen Turnbull 2003, New York<br />
*Samurai Warfare Dr. Stephen Turnbull 1996, London<br />
*The Samurai Sourcebook Dr. Stephen Turnbull 2000, London<br />
*Nihon no Bijutsu #360 1996, Tokyo<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arms and Armor]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Sanada_Komatsu&diff=23196Sanada Komatsu2012-12-03T02:16:15Z<p>Bethetsu: See discussion</p>
<hr />
<div>* ''Born: [[1573]]''<br />
* ''Died: [[1620]]''<br />
* ''Birth Name:'' 本多稲 ''(Honda Ina)''<br />
* ''Posthumous Name:'' 大連院 ''(Dairen-in)''<br />
* ''Japanese:'' 真田小松 ''(Sanada Komatsu)''<br />
<br />
<br />
Komatsu was the daughter of [[Honda Tadakatsu]], one of the most trusted and prominent of [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]]'s vassals. Ieyasu adopted her for use in marriage politics (a very common practice), and gave her the name of Komatsu. Thus she was officially Ieyasu's daughter. <ref> Some lacquer dowery goods marked with the Tokugawa crest are preserved in the temple in Ueda where her grave marker is. </ref> He married her to [[Sanada Nobuyuki]], the eldest son of [[Sanada Masayuki]] of [[Ueda Castle]] in [[Shinano province]]. They had two sons, [[Sanada Nobuyoshi|Nobuyoshi]] (信吉), born [[1593]], and [[Sanada Nobumasa|Nobumasa]] (信政).<br />
<br />
Nobuyuki held the Sanada castle of [[Numata castle|Numata]], in the NW corner of [[Kozuke province|Kôzuke Province]], and his family was living there in [[1600]] when in the prelude to the [[Battle of Sekigahara]], Ieyasu summoned him, along with his father and younger brother Nobushige ([[Sanada Yukimura|Yukimura]]), to join in his attack on [[Uesugi Kagekatsu]]. They got as far as Inuyama in [[Shimotsuke province]] when they received an invitation from [[Ishida Mitsunari]] to join him against Ieyasu. Masayuki immediately withdrew from Ieyasu's army taking Nobushige with him, but Nobuyuki stayed with Ieyasu, it is said at his father's direction. Probably the fact that Komatsu was the daughter of Tadakatsu and also of Ieyasu played a part in Masayuki's decision to have Nobuyuki stay with Ieyasu. <br />
<br />
[[Image:NumataCstl.Cherry c1600.jpg||thumb|left|Cherry tree in Numata Castle from around 1600]]<br />
Masayuki, having left Ieyasu, dropped by Numata on his way back to Ueda, announcing that he wanted to see his grandchildren. However, Komatsu refused him admittance, saying that even if she was a woman, she had been given the responsibility of guarding the castle, and if he tried to force his way in she would kill the children and herself and set the castle on fire!<br />
<br />
Masayuki and Nobushige returned to Ueda and barricaded themselves in the castle, but soon after, a force led by Ieyasu's son [[Tokugawa Hidetada|Hidetada]] attacked (the [[Second Battle of Ueda Castle]]). Komatsu's husband Nobuyuki and his men were among the attackers. Of course, as part of the Sanada clan many of Nobuyuki's men had relatives in Ueda Castle and Komatsu apparently feared that some of them might betray her husband for their relatives' sake. She invited the aged parents and wives and children of the family retainers to the castle saying she wanted to entertain them during the difficult time while their husbands were away, and kept them there, virtually as hostages, during the attack on Ueda, which ended after eight days with Hidetada's withdrawal.<br />
<br />
Ieyasu had promised to give Nobuyuki his father's land, and in [[1601]] it was turned over to him. He ruled both Ueda and Numata, but from [[1616]] concentrated on Ueda. Komatsu died on a journey in [[1620]] at Kônosu (鴻ノ巣), a stage on the [[Nakasendo]] Highway. Her body was taken back to Ueda.<br />
<br />
Komatsu (Dairen-in) has splendid tomb markers ("haka") in temples in Ueda, Numata, and Matsushiro (where the family was transfered to in [[1622]]). <ref> "Haka" normally means "grave," but here must mean "marker." One wonders where her remains actually are. </ref><br />
<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
*[[Sanada Family Materials]]<br />
<br />
*西野 辰吉, 「関ケ原合戦記」、日本合戦騒動叢書 7, 勉誠社 , 1994. (Nishino Tachikichi, ''Sekigahara Gassen-ki''.)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Women]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Talk:Sanada_Komatsu&diff=23187Talk:Sanada Komatsu2012-11-29T13:54:07Z<p>Bethetsu: hime-Komatsu?</p>
<hr />
<div>姫小松 (hime-Komatsu) as "another name" is strange. Shouldn't it be Komatsu-hime 小松姫? I don't think I have ever seen the "hime" first. And in any case, do we need it? It is more a title--the ''Sanada Family Materials'' called her "Komatsu-dono" -- and if we start adding -dono, hime, etc. to names there will be no end. Although maybe as daughter of Ieyasu she is always used with somthing. --[[User:Bethetsu|Bethetsu]] 05:54, 29 November 2012 (PST)</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Shimazu_Hisamitsu&diff=23117Shimazu Hisamitsu2012-11-23T04:09:04Z<p>Bethetsu: Removed ambiguity</p>
<hr />
<div>*''Japanese'': [[島津]]久光 ''(Shimazu Hisamitsu)''<br />
<br />
Shimazu Hisamitsu was the father of the last [[daimyo]] of [[Satsuma han]], the young [[Shimazu Tadayoshi]], who ruled the domain from [[1858]] until [[1868]]. Despite not being the domain's lord himself, as regent for his son, Hisamitsu governed the domain, and acted prominently on the national level, as if he were.<br />
<br />
In regards to the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]], which was something of a vassal state under Satsuma's suzerainty, Hisamitsu reversed many of the policies of the previous daimyô, his brother, [[Shimazu Nariakira]].<br />
<br />
Prior to the fall of the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]], Hisamitsu vacillated between supporting and opposing the shogunate, while certain of his prominent retainers, [[Saigo Takamori|Saigô Takamori]] chief among them, were staunch in their opposition to the shogunate. In [[1862]], in accordance with orders from [[Emperor Komei|Emperor Kômei]] that he aid in eliminating the problem of [[shishi|anti-shogunate rebels]] meeting and plotting in [[Kyoto]], Hisamitsu dispatched a team of samurai from Satsuma to retrieve rebels originating from Satsuma and to bring them back to the domain, resulting in the famous [[Teradaya Incident]]. A fight broke out at an inn in [[Fushimi]] between rebels who had met there to plot against the shogunate, and these samurai dispatched by Hisamitsu to suppress their activities; several were killed before the remaining rebels surrendered.<br />
<br />
Hisamitsu was also involved in the famous [[Namamugi Incident]] that same year, when a British merchant, Charles Richardson, either refused or was unable to properly make way for Hisamitsu's entourage as it traveled down the road; Richardson was killed, and in response the British Royal Navy [[bombardment of Kagoshima|bombarded Kagoshima]], the chief Satsuma castle town.<br />
<br />
In the early [[Meiji period]], he remained a staunch pro-samurai conservative, leaving [[Tokyo]] and returning to [[Kagoshima]] in anger and frustration in the early or mid-1870s, after submitting memorials to the Emperor expressing his distaste for reforms and innovations that had been undertaken which undermined the samurai as a privileged class of warriors, as well as reforms to the calendar, the wearing of Western dress at formal state occasions, the employment of foreigners as special advisors to the government, the adoption of foreign modes of military training, the adoption of commoner/citizen [[military conscription]], and the like.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Kerr, George. ''Okinawa: The History of an Island People''. Revised Edition. Tuttle Publishing, 2000. <br />
*Norman, E.H. ''Soldier and Peasant in Japan: The Origins of Conscription''. New York: Institute for Pacific Relations, 1945. pp43-44.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Samurai]]<br />
[[Category:Bakumatsu]]<br />
[[Category:Meiji Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Townsend_Harris&diff=22879Townsend Harris2012-10-28T11:47:28Z<p>Bethetsu: Added other book for information</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Harris.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The grave of Townsend Harris at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, NY.]]<br />
*''Born: 5 Oct [[1803]], Sandy Hill, NY''<br />
*''Died: 25 Feb [[1878]], New York, NY''<br />
<br />
Townsend Harris was the first Consul General of the United States to Japan, and the founder of the City University of New York (CUNY). He is particularly known for the US-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce, also known as the [[Harris Treaty]].<br />
<br />
Following [[Commodore Perry]]'s [[1854]] [[Convention of Kanagawa]], a US consulate was established at [[Shimoda]]. Harris arrived there in August [[1856]], and became the first US consul general resident in Japan. After roughly two years of negotiations and difficulties, on July 29, [[1858]], he was finally able to convince the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] to agree to a treaty, opening a number of [[treaty ports|ports]] to US trade, and granting Americans a degree of [[extraterritoriality]], among other points.<br />
<br />
His time in Japan and relationship with a [[geisha]] named [[Okichi]] has been fictionalized in numerous plays and films, including Madame Butterfly, and Berthold Brecht's "The Judith of Shimoda."<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Dower, John. "[http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/yokohama/yb_essay01.html Yokohama Boomtown: Foreigners in Treaty Port Japan (1859-1872)]." MIT Visualizing Cultures. 2008.<br />
<br />
==Other Reading==<br />
<br />
<br />
*Statler, Oliver, ''Shimoda Story'', Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1971.<br />
<br />
By the author of [[ Japanese Inn]]. A blow-by-blow, non-flattering account of Harris's first year in Japan, in Shimoda. The book is particularly interesting because it uses a wealth of Japanese material, both national and local, to show how his presence affected national politics and also how the shogunate as well as the local the Shimoda village officials dealt with this nuisance.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bakumatsu]]<br />
[[Category:Diplomats]]<br />
[[Category:Foreigners]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Shibukawa_Harumi&diff=22802Shibukawa Harumi2012-10-15T06:34:51Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>*Born: 1639<br />
:Died: 1715<br />
*Title:Tenmon gata<br />
*Japanese:澁川春海(Shibukawa Harumi or Shibukawa Shunkai)<br />
*Other names Yasui Santetsu II 二世保井算哲 Motoi Santetsu 保井 算晢<br />
<br />
Harumi was born into a family of go-players to the shogunate, but was also interested in mathematics and astronomy. At that time Japan was still calculating the calendar using the Tang calendar the Senmyô calendar 宣明暦, which it had adopted in 8612, and inaccuracies in the calendar were obvious, especially that the winter solstice was calculated almost two days late. Also, it was not very accurate with eclipses, in particular predicted far too many. Harumi like some other scholars of the time believed that the Mongol-period Juji calendar授時暦, which was the apex of the Chinese calendar tradition,should be adopted in Japan. Through his professional connections as a go-player he was able to interest several officials in the project, especially [[Hoshina Masanori]] 保科正之 of Aizu, the shogun's guardian, and Mito Mitsukuni. He made a table of eclipses as predicted by the Senmyô and Juji calendars to prove the superiority of the later. However, on 1675/5/1 an eclipse that was predicted by the Senmyô calendar but not by the Juji calendar did occur, and so the idea of changing calendars was rejected.<br />
Harumi managed to get hold of a (forbidden) Chinese work on western astronomy, and "localized" the 13th-century Chinese calendar for 17th century Japan, and in 1683 petitioned the imperial court to adopt the "Yamato" calendar. However, the next year the court decided to adopt the Ming-period Daitô calendar 大統暦, a very slight revision of the Juji calendar. Harumi again petitioned, saying the Daitou calendar was not suitable for Japan, and finally on 1684/10/29 the Yamato calendar was accepted, and it went into effect the next year as the Jôkyô calendar 貞享暦.<br />
<br />
After that, the shogunate established the office of the Tenmon gata 天文方, and Harumi became the first holder of that post. He had an observatory on his property and built some astronomical instruments.<br />
<br />
A 2009 novel <br />
Tenchimeisatsu 天地明察 by Ubukata Tô 冲方丁 about him won the Yoshikawa Eiji New Authors Prize 吉川英治文学新人賞. The book was made into a movie in 2012, directed by 滝田洋二郎, who directed Okuribito.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Hirose Yoshio, Koyomi (Nihon-shi Shôhyakka), 1978.<br />
* [[Japan Chronik]]<br />
[[Category:Edo Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Seiken-ji&diff=22717Seiken-ji2012-08-30T05:54:28Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>*''Established: late 7th century''<br />
*''Other Names'': 巨鼇山 ''(Kogouzan)''<br />
*''Japanese'': 清見寺 ''(Seiken-ji; Kiyomi-dera)''<br />
<br />
Seiken-ji is a [[Rinzai]] [[Zen]] temple of the Myôshinji sect in Okitsu 興津 in [[Suruga province]], just east of [[Sunpu]], now part of [[Shizuoka City]] of Shizuoka prefecture. It dominates an important point on the [[Tokaido Highway]], and so has been destroyed and rebuilt several times. <br />
<br />
The temple is believed to have been originally founded in the late 7th century, as a temple associated with, and protecting, the barrier checkpoint at Kiyomi-ga-seki<ref>The "Seiken" of the temple's name (清見) is an alternate reading of the characters for "Kiyo-mi" in Kiyomi-ga-seki.</ref> The temple was re-established as a Rinzai Zen temple in [[1261]], by Zen master [[Muden Shozen|Muden Shôzen]]<!--無伝聖禅-->. The temple was restored once again by [[Shogun]] [[Ashikaga Takauji]] in the 14th century.<br />
<br />
The temple has been host to many well-known people. According to temple tradition, [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] when he was a child accompanied his tutor Abbot Taigen Sessai 太原雪斎 on his visits to Seiken-ji.<ref>Statler p. 30; http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/清見寺.</ref> Other visitors can be documented. [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] stayed there while his headquarters were being finished for the [[siege of Odawara]]. He was impressed by the sound of the temple bell, and requisitioned it for use during the campaign. At the end of the Edo period, in [[1862]] the shogun [[Tokugawa Iemochi]] stayed there on his way to Kyoto, and [[1869 |seven years later]] [[Emperor Meiji]] stayed there on his way to the new capital of Tokyo.<br />
<br />
There was a close connection between Seiken-ji and the [[Ryukyuan embassies to Edo]]. On his [[1609]] invasion of the [[Ryukyu Kingdom]], [[Shimazu Iehisa]] of [[Satsuma province]] took hostage several members of the royal family, and the [[1610|next year]] he took them to [[Sunpu]] for an audience with Ieyasu, and then to [[Edo]] for an audience with the shogun [[Tokugawa Hidetada|Hidetada]]. However, shortly after leaving Sunpu, [[Prince Sho Ko|Crown Prince Shô Kô]], younger brother to King [[Sho Nei|Shô Nei]], died and was buried in Seiken-ji. The Ryukyuan embassies to Edo customarily stopped to visit his grave during the remainder of the [[Edo period]]. There are records of stops in in [[1710]], [[1714]], [[1749]], [[1764]], [[1791]], [[1806]], [[1830]], and [[1850]]. In [[1790]], Prince [[Ginowan Chosho|Ginowan Chôshô]]<!--宜野湾王子朝祥--> (also known as Shô Yô<!--尚容-->) erected a new gravestone. A framed piece of calligraphy by Ginowan Chôshô donated to the temple at that time hangs inside the temple's main hall (''hondô''), along with a number of similar plaques associated with [[Korean embassies to Edo]].<br />
<br />
<br />
Other objects held by the temple and associated with Ryûkyû include a set of bronze lanterns, six scrolls of memorial writings prepared between 1710 and 1752, eight scrolls of memorial writings prepared between 1764 and 1850, an old ''[[sanshin]]'' (''shamisen'') today displayed in the ''zashiki'' (parlor) of the temple's main hall, and a number of ''[[tenmoku]]'' ceramics and [[Ryukyuan lacquer|lacquerwares]] today held in the temple's Treasure House.<br />
<br />
Seiken-ji is probably best known to westerners through Oliver Statler's book [[''Japanese Inn'']], which centers about an inn in Okitsu. Statler got much information about the temple directly from temple officials.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*"[http://kotobank.jp/word/%E6%B8%85%E8%A6%8B%E5%AF%BA Seiken-ji]." ''Digital Daijisen'' デジタル大辞泉. Shogakukan, Inc.<br />
*Watanabe Miki. "[http://www.geocities.jp/ryukyu_history/Japan_Ryukyu/Main.html Nihon ni okeru Ryûkyû shiseki]." (personal website)<br />
*Statler, Oliver, Japanese Inn, Pyramid Books, 1962.<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
*http://seikenji.com/ The temple's web page, with photos of buildings, the garden, and art treasures.<br />
*[https://maps.google.com/maps?q=%E9%9D%99%E5%B2%A1%E5%B8%82%E6%B8%85%E8%A6%8B%E5%AF%BA&hl=en&ie=UTF8&sll=42.746632,-75.770041&sspn=4.315895,10.821533&t=h&hq=%E9%9D%99%E5%B2%A1%E5%B8%82%E6%B8%85%E8%A6%8B%E5%AF%BA&radius=15000&z=13 Seiken-ji on Google Maps].<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ryukyu]]<br />
[[Category:Edo Period]]<br />
[[Category:Temples]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Seiken-ji&diff=22716Seiken-ji2012-08-30T05:46:43Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>*''Established: late 7th century''<br />
*''Other Names'': 巨鼇山 ''(Kogouzan)''<br />
*''Japanese'': 清見寺 ''(Seiken-ji; Kiyomi-dera)''<br />
<br />
Seiken-ji is a [[Rinzai]] [[Zen]] temple of the Myôshinji sect in Okitsu 興津 in [[Suruga province]], just east of [[Sunpu]], now part of [[Shizuoka City]] of Shizuoka prefecture. It dominates an important point on the [[Tokaido Highway]], and so has been destroyed and rebuilt several times. <br />
<br />
The temple is believed to have been originally founded in the late 7th century, as a temple associated with, and protecting, the barrier checkpoint at Kiyomi-ga-seki<ref>The "Seiken" of the temple's name (清見) is an alternate reading of the characters for "Kiyo-mi" in Kiyomi-ga-seki.</ref> The temple was re-established as a Rinzai Zen temple in [[1261]], by Zen master [[Muden Shozen|Muden Shôzen]]<!--無伝聖禅-->. The temple was restored once again by [[Shogun]] [[Ashikaga Takauji]] in the 14th century.<br />
<br />
The temple has been host to many well-known people. According to temple tradition, [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] when he was a child accompanied his tutor Abbot Taigen Sessai 太原雪斎 on his visits to Seiken-ji.<ref>{Statler p. 30, http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/清見寺.</ref> Other visitors can be documented. [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] stayed there while his headquarters were being finished for the [[siege of Odawara]]. He was impressed by the sound of the temple bell, and requisitioned it for use during the campaign. At the end of the Edo period, in [[1862]] the shogun [[Tokugawa Iemochi]] stayed there on his way to Kyoto, and [[1869 |seven years later]] [[Emperor Meiji]] stayed there on his way to the new capital of Tokyo.<br />
<br />
There was a close connection between Seiken-ji and the [[Ryukyuan embassies to Edo]]. On his [[1609]] invasion of the [[Ryukyu Kingdom]], [[Shimazu Iehisa]] of [[Satsuma province]] took hostage several members of the royal family. The[[1610|next year]] he took them to [[Sunpu]] for an audience with Ieyasu, and then to [[Edo]] for an audience with the shogun [[Tokugawa Hidetada|Hidetada]]. However, shortly after leaving Sunpu, [[Prince Sho Ko|Crown Prince Shô Kô]], younger brother to King [[Sho Nei|Shô Nei]], died and was buried in Seiken-ji. The Ryukyuan embassies to Edo customarily stopped to visit his grave during the remainder of the [[Edo period]]. There are records of stops in in [[1710]], [[1714]], [[1749]], [[1764]], [[1791]], [[1806]], [[1830]], and [[1850]]. In [[1790]], Prince [[Ginowan Chosho|Ginowan Chôshô]]<!--宜野湾王子朝祥--> (also known as Shô Yô<!--尚容-->) erected a new gravestone. A framed piece of calligraphy by Ginowan Chôshô donated to the temple at that time hangs inside the temple's main hall (''hondô''), along with a number of similar plaques associated with [[Korean embassies to Edo]].<br />
<br />
. It is the site of the grave of a [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryukyuan]] Crown Prince who died in Sunpu in [[1610]], and the temple was visited by [[Ryukyuan embassies to Edo|Ryukyuan embassies]] in [[1710]], [[1714]], [[1749]], [[1764]], [[1791]], [[1806]], [[1830]], and [[1850]].<br />
<br />
[[Prince Sho Ko|Crown Prince Shô Kô]], younger brother to King [[Sho Nei|Shô Nei]], died at Sunpu in 1610 while a hostage of [[Shimazu Iehisa]]. He was buried at Seikan-ji, and his grave became a customary stop made by the Ryukyuan embassies to Edo for the remainder of the [[Edo period]]. In [[1790]], Prince [[Ginowan Chosho|Ginowan Chôshô]]<!--宜野湾王子朝祥--> (also known as Shô Yô<!--尚容-->) erected a new gravestone. A framed piece of calligraphy by Ginowan Chôshô, also donated to the temple at that time, hangs inside the temple's main hall (''hondô''), along with a number of similar plaques associated with [[Korean embassies to Edo]].<br />
<br />
Other objects held by the temple and associated with Ryûkyû include a set of bronze lanterns, six scrolls of memorial writings prepared between 1710 and 1752, eight scrolls of memorial writings prepared between 1764 and 1850, an old ''[[sanshin]]'' (''shamisen'')today displayed in the ''zashiki'' (parlor) of the temple's main hall, and a number of ''[[tenmoku]]'' ceramics and [[Ryukyuan lacquer|lacquerwares]] today held in the temple's Treasure House.<br />
<br />
Seiken-ji is probably best known to westerners through Oliver Statler's book [[Japanese Inn]], which centers around an inn in Okitsu. Statler got much information about the temple directly from temple officials.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*"[http://kotobank.jp/word/%E6%B8%85%E8%A6%8B%E5%AF%BA Seiken-ji]." ''Digital Daijisen'' デジタル大辞泉. Shogakukan, Inc.<br />
*Watanabe Miki. "[http://www.geocities.jp/ryukyu_history/Japan_Ryukyu/Main.html Nihon ni okeru Ryûkyû shiseki]." (personal website)<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
Statler, Oliver, Japanese Inn, Pyramid Books, 1962.<br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
*http://seikenji.com/ The temple's web page, with photos of buidings, the garden, and art treasures.<br />
*[https://maps.google.com/maps?q=%E9%9D%99%E5%B2%A1%E5%B8%82%E6%B8%85%E8%A6%8B%E5%AF%BA&hl=en&ie=UTF8&sll=42.746632,-75.770041&sspn=4.315895,10.821533&t=h&hq=%E9%9D%99%E5%B2%A1%E5%B8%82%E6%B8%85%E8%A6%8B%E5%AF%BA&radius=15000&z=13 Seiken-ji on Google Maps].<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ryukyu]]<br />
[[Category:Edo Period]]<br />
[[Category:Temples]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Talk:Sanjusangendo&diff=22666Talk:Sanjusangendo2012-08-14T13:01:58Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>So is it certain that Kiyomori built the hall? The Heike Monogatari specifically gives his father Taira no Tadamori credit for having built the structure and filling it with '1001 images of Buddha'. Obviously, the Heike is quite suspect at times as a source, but Tadamori is generally known as having built Rengeō-in, the hall's 'official' name. Guess I'll have to get out my guidebook...<br />
::Hmm. Yeah, I dunno. I poked around a couple of the books I have here (Sansom; Paine and Soper's "Art & Architecture of Japan") and they don't say anything one way or the other... But if you have other info, by all means add it in. I'd trust Japan-specific materials you may have over this Global History of Architecture... Thanks! [[User:LordAmeth|LordAmeth]] 08:40, 10 August 2012 (PDT)<br />
<br />
<br />
Here's the passage from the Heike (McCullough's translation):<br />
<br />
"But Tadamori, during his term as Bizen Governor, built a Buddhist hall thirty-three bays long (sanjusangendo-Tatsu), enshrined therein a thousand and one holy images, and offered it in fulfillment of Retired Emperor Toba's vow to found a temple, the Tokujojuin. The dedication took place on the Thirteenth of the Third Month in the first year of Tensho (1131-Tatsu). Orders were issued to reward Tadamori with a province, and Tajima, which happened to be available, was given to him. The delighted Retired Emperor also granted him courtier privileges at the imperial palace. Tadamori set foot in the Courtier's Hall for the first time at the age of thirty-six."<br />
<br />
The Enkyobon variant of the Heike greatly expands on the dedication and devotes several pages to the clerics and ceremonies that were held-and also of the craft groups Tadamori employed.<br />
<br />
However, the guidebook sold at Sanjusangendo claims it was built at the request of Retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa and was completed in 1164. It doesn't mention Kiyomori at all. This seems to be pretty well accepted. <br />
<br />
Since the Heike is a war tale and has been shown to be fictional at times, I'd lean toward the 1164 date. Since the Heike largely portrays Kiyomori as a lout, thug, and villain, that could also be a reason why they ascribed this to Tadamori-showing Kiyomori doing something positive and pious would be at odds with the flow of the narrative.<br />
<br />
::Cool. Thanks so much! [[User:LordAmeth|LordAmeth]] 08:35, 13 August 2012 (PDT)<br />
<br />
I think it should be said that on the S-A Forum it was pretty much settled that Tadamori built the 33-ken building of the Tokuchôjuin, while this article is talking about the famous 33-ken building that Kiyomori built, the Rengeôin.<br />
<br />
Also, the exhibition book put out by the temple said it is Tendai sect, so I changed from Pure Land Sect. I think it is rather early for the Pure Land Sect (Jôdoshû) anyway. --[[User:Bethetsu|Bethetsu]] 06:01, 14 August 2012 (PDT)</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Sanjusangendo&diff=22665Sanjusangendo2012-08-14T12:55:04Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Sanjusangendo.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Sanjûsangendô.]]<br />
*''Built: [[1164]], [[Taira no Kiyomori]]''<br />
*''Popular Name'': 三十三間堂 ''(san juu san gen dou)''<br />
*''Formal Name'': 蓮華王院本堂 ''(renge ou in hondou)''<br />
<br />
<br />
The Sanjûsangendô (lit. "Hall of 33 Bays") is a Buddhist temple of the [[Tendai sect]] located in Kyoto. It was built by [[Taira no Kiyomori]] for [[emperor Go-Shirakawa|Ex-emperor Go-Shirakawa]] and finished in [[1164]] . It is thirty-three bays long (about 120 meters) and four bays deep, the width of "bays," i.e. the space between the pillars in a building, being standardized in traditional Japanese architecture.<br />
<br />
Due to the great length of the hall, its exterior porch has long been the site of [[archery]] competitions. The competition centered not on hitting a bull's eye or other target with exceptional precision or accuracy, but rather on firing as many arrows as possible within a limited time, and on having as many of those arrows as possible fly the full length of the hall without striking the floor, walls, pillars, or ceiling of the porch. The standing record dates back to [[1686]], when a competitor is said to have loosed 13,053 arrows down the length of the building, of which 8,133 were successfully shot the full length of the building without touching it.<br />
<br />
The hall contains a large gilded central sculpture of the "1000-armed" [[Kannon]] (the 1000 arms are represented by 42 arms in the statues), flanked by 1000 smaller 1000-armed Kannon, along with figures of twenty-eight other various Buddhist deities. The building, and many of the sculptures, were severely damaged during the [[Genpei War]] (1180-1185); the sculptures created in the early 13th century by [[Tankei]] and other members of the [[Kei school]] to replace those lost are often cited as some of the greatest surviving examples of [[Kamakura period]] sculpture.<br />
<br />
An earthenwork wall in the Sanjûsangendô compound is counted among the Three [Great] Earthenwork Walls of Japan, alongside one built by [[Oda Nobunaga]] at [[Atsuta Shrine]] in [[Nagoya]], and one at [[Nishinomiya Shrine]].<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Ching, Francis D.K. et al. ''A Global History of Architecture''. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. p398.<br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
*[https://maps.google.com/maps?q=%E4%BA%AC%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82%E4%B8%89%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E9%96%93%E5%A0%82&hl=en&ie=UTF8&ll=34.987983,135.771822&spn=0.004703,0.010568&sll=37.0625,-95.677068&sspn=37.188995,86.572266&t=h&hq=%E4%BA%AC%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82%E4%B8%89%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E9%96%93%E5%A0%82&z=17 Sanjûsangendô on Google Maps].<br />
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[[Category:Temples]]<br />
[[Category:Kamakura Period]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Talk:Takatsuki_castle&diff=22396Talk:Takatsuki castle2012-07-07T12:59:15Z<p>Bethetsu: Suggest deleting page</p>
<hr />
<div>I think this page should be deleted.<br />
<br />
The photo is the site of a small, virtually unknown fortress Takatsuki 高月城 in Musashi that was hardly used after about 1550.<br />
<br />
The history is of Takatsuki 高槻城 in Setsu, best known as the seat of the Takayamas for twelve years, which was at one point surrendered to Nobunaga, and was an Edo-period han.<br />
I tried to avoid the confusion by specifying that the photo was of Takatsuki in Musashi, but it didn't work.<br />
<br />
Probably an article on the Musashi castle should be "Takatsuki Castle (Musashi)", and Takatsuki Castle in Setsu be just "Takatsuki Castle," but if you split the material now on the page, I don't think there is enough material to justify an article on either. --[[User:Bethetsu|Bethetsu]] 05:59, 7 July 2012 (PDT)</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=File:Takiyama_C(Musashi).layout.jpg&diff=22358File:Takiyama C(Musashi).layout.jpg2012-07-04T01:53:08Z<p>Bethetsu: Layout of Takiyama Castle 滝山城 Hachiôji (Musashi). From pamphlet put out by Tokyo Park Commission. (Picked up June 2012.)</p>
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<div>Layout of Takiyama Castle 滝山城 Hachiôji (Musashi). From pamphlet put out by Tokyo Park Commission. (Picked up June 2012.)</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=File:Takiyama_C_(Musashi).central_layout.jpg&diff=22357File:Takiyama C (Musashi).central layout.jpg2012-07-04T01:50:53Z<p>Bethetsu: Central section of Takiyama Castle 滝山城 in Hachiôji (Musashi). Sign on site (June 2012)</p>
<hr />
<div>Central section of Takiyama Castle 滝山城 in Hachiôji (Musashi). Sign on site (June 2012)</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=File:Takiyama_C_(Musashi).view_from.jpg&diff=22356File:Takiyama C (Musashi).view from.jpg2012-07-04T01:48:24Z<p>Bethetsu: View of Tama and Akigawa Rivers from honmaru of Takiyama Castle 滝山城 in Hachiôji (Musashi) Photo by Bethetsu.</p>
<hr />
<div>View of Tama and Akigawa Rivers from honmaru of Takiyama Castle 滝山城 in Hachiôji (Musashi) Photo by Bethetsu.</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=File:Takatsuki_C_(Musashi).view.jpg&diff=22355File:Takatsuki C (Musashi).view.jpg2012-07-04T01:44:52Z<p>Bethetsu: Takatsuki Castle location 高月城 Hachiôji City (Musashi)
(Photo by Bethetsu)</p>
<hr />
<div>Takatsuki Castle location 高月城 Hachiôji City (Musashi)<br />
(Photo by Bethetsu)</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Year_dates&diff=22063Year dates2012-05-08T06:52:14Z<p>Bethetsu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Four major ways have been used to identify years in Japan: counting from the beginning of a year period, or era, (the ''nengô'' 年号system), which is still the official dating system; reign years, a system used by historians for dates in early history; the Chinese 60-year cycle (''kanshi'' 干支 system), now used only marginally in Japan; and the Western, or Christian, calendar. <ref>There is also the very marginal Kôki 皇紀 system. Japan established this method of counting years in 1872. In it, Year 1 was the first year of the reign of [[Emperor Jimmu]], calculated from the [[Nihon Shoki]] to be 660 B.C. This system was mentioned in the 1898 law establishing leap years; year dates are often given in it (along with the western year) in the front of almanacs, and it was used in naming the 2600 (=1940 A.D.) Zero airplane. I also saw it on a shrine memorial stella commemorating the 26th centenary of 2601 (=1941 A.D.). However, its use has always been extremely limited.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:YearDates.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reign Years==<br />
The earliest year dates used in China were the reign year of the ruler. These appear on some of the 13th-century BC bone oracles and early bronze vessels. However, in the 2nd-century BC these were replaced by era names (nengô, see below), and the [[sexagenary cycle]] cycle also started to be used for years around this time. Therefore, reign years were never used for records in Japan, though the system was known from Chinese histories like the classic ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'' (covering 722 to 481 BC).<br />
<br />
However, the editors of the [[Nihon Shoki]] for their year dates calculated the reign years of the Japanese emperors, except for the few years for which nengô existed. Thus we have dates like "in the 5th year and the 11th month of the reign of the Emperor [[Emperor Sushun|Hatsuse-be]]." <ref> ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'',1:43. </ref>. The standard historians' dates follow the Shoki, using the later standard names for the emperors, so the above date is known as "Sushun 5." <br />
<br />
In China, the "first year" of a reign was sometimes reckoned as the year a reign actually started and sometimes as the following year. However, perhaps influenced by the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', in the Shoki, reign years, including the first year (gannen 元年), started on New Year's Day and were not retroactive, so Year 1 usually starts on the New Year ''following'' the actual start of the reign. However there are some exceptions, notably Tenji 1 (662), which is the year after the death of [[Empress Seimei]], though [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] did not formally become emperor until 668.<ref>Note that when dealing with Chinese, Japanese, and Okinawan rulers, and probably others from the region as well, one has to be careful of the meaning of "ascension year" in reference material. Often it refers to the year of the "1st year" of the reign year or the "1st year" of that ruler's first nengô. However, depending on the ruler, this could be either the year of or the year after the actual ascension. </ref><br />
<br />
==Era (''Nengô'' 年号) System==<br />
===General===<br />
In the year-period system, which is still the official year-dating system in Japan, the imperial court determines that the era name (''nengô'' 年号) shall be changed to XX, a two-character name using Chinese (on) readings such as Tai-ka 大化 or Hei-sei 平成. (From 749-770 four-character names were used.) The beginnings of eras are given in reference books; there is also a list in the article on [[Japanese Eras]]. This change in name can occur at any time of year. <br />
<br />
In China, the first year period, Jian-yuan (Kengen) 建元, started in 140 A.D. In Japan, the first was Taika 大化 in [[645]] A.D., and the first period change was occasioned in [[650]] by the court's receiving the gift of a white pheasant: the period name was changed to Hakuchi 白雉. <ref>''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', Columbia University Press, 1:69, 76. </ref> After this, there were several decades when nengô were not used, except for a few months in 686, but since 701 (Taihô), the eras have been regularly established. <br />
<br />
In the period from 1336-1392 there were [[Nanboku-cho|two rival courts]]. Since the court determines the year periods, there were two sets of era names during this time. In 1910 it was officially decided that, the "southern" court had been the legitimate court during the period,<ref> Ivan Morris, ''[[The Nobility of Failure]]'', p. 387. </ref> so the "southern" era names are the official ones given in lists. However, as the "northern" era names were the ones actually used in most of the country, they are normally given somewhere in the lists, often marked as "northern dynasty."<br />
<br />
===Start of an Era===<br />
The start of a new era could be declared for any number of reasons. The principle reason was the ascension of a new emperor (dai-hamjime 代始め). Throughout most of history it was normal to proclaim the new era during the year following the actual ascension. A very late or no dai-hajime nengô often seems to indicate some type of power struggle. This is particularly noticeable in the 17th century when the Edo shogunate was trying to dominate the imperial court. Among other reasons for a new nengô were the occurrence of the first or 58th year of the 60-year cycle (see below), a felicitous omen (especially in the early period), disasters, etc. Many periods were only three or four years long. For most of history, the names had nothing to do with that of the emperor: though there was a Tenshô period, there was no "Emperor Tenshô." However, since the start of the Meiji period (1868), the only reason for a new period has been the reign of a new emperor, and the emperor is after death referred to by the name of the period he reigned in, so now we refer to the emperors Meiji, Taishô, and Shôwa. However, unlike the ancient reign-year system, the first year of new era starts on the day of the death of the previous emperor (Taishô period, Shôwa period), or on the day after (Heisei period), not the following year.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, a change in the era name can occur at any time of year. For instance, the Tenshô Era began the 28th day of the Seventh Month of 1573 and lasted until the 8th day of the Twelfth Month of 1592. New periods began during the day. However, the present period, Heisei 平成, began at exactly at midnight the morning of January 8, 1989. The exact day an era begins was not considered important until recently, however. At times, as in the Edo period, eras were treated as having started at the beginning of the year retroactively. Furthermore, as one never knows when a new period will begin, one often finds dates that officially did not exist. For example, there is a grave in western Tokyo (formerly [[Musashi province]] ) dated "Shitoku 4 (1387), 11th month," though Shitoku had ended in the 8th month. (Note that this is a "northern" ''nengô''.) In modern times, drivers licenses valid to "Shôwa 66" remained valid to 1991, though Shôwa ended in 1989.<br />
<br />
===Calculating Year Periods===<br />
The first year of an era is called "gan-nen" 元年. Subsequent years are counted from the beginning of the calendar year. For example, the Shôwa period started December 25, 1926, and the second year of Shôwa 昭和二年 started one week later on January 1, 1927. When calculating between year periods and the Western year, remember that the first year of the era is 1, not 0. So, to calculate the dates of Shôwa, which began in 1926, add or subtract 1925 (=1926-1). Thus 1945 was 1945-1925 = Shôwa 20, while Shôwa 34 was 1925+34 = 1959. For a list of eras and the years they began, see the article on [[Japanese Eras]].<br />
<br />
Dating using ''nengô'' is very settled in Japan, so there is no confusion about the years they refer to.<br />
<br />
==Cyclic, or ''Kanshi'' 干支, system==<br />
Japan early took over the [[Sexegenary cycle]] (''kanshi'' 干支) system from China. Japan and China use completely different ''nengô'', but 1504 was the year of 甲子 throughout east Asia. <br />
<br />
The system appears as a way of indicating days in the earliest Chinese writings, the 13th-century BC Shang-period oracle bones, but around the 2nd century BC it came to be used also for years. Japan adopted this system in the earliest dates we have, a sword dated 辛亥, probably 471 from the reign of [[Emperoro Yuryaku|Emperoro Yûryaku]], and a mirror from Wakayama dated 癸未年, probably 443 or 503. Also, on the 7th-century administrative wooden tablets found in various capitals, the years are indicated using the cycle.<br />
<br />
In this system, two series of characters, the ten stems (''kan'' 干) and the twelve branches (''shi'' 支 ) are used cyclically. They can be combined into a series of sixty elements (see the article on the cycle), which may be used to indicate years. 甲子, the first element of the series, can indicate the years 904, 964, 1024, 1084, 1144, 1204, and all other years separated from these by a multiple of 60. 乙巳, the 42nd element in the series, can be 886, 946, 1006, 1066, 1126, 1186, 1246, etc. It is also common to indicate a year using only the branch, or ''shi'', part of the cycle. Thus 巳 occurs every twelve years, as 886, 898, 910, etc. As the branches have gotten animal names attached to them, the years expressed by branches are often translated using animal names. A 巳 year is a "Year of the Snake," for example. Note, however, that since the cyclic terms repeat, one needs some more information than just the cyclic name to completely identify the year.<br />
<br />
The cycles do have the advantage over the era system of being predictable. There is an Ôei 25 (1418) contract selling "the ten harvests of the ten years from the ''inu'' year to the following ''hitsuji'' year." While at the time the contract was written there was no way of knowing whether or not there would be a Ôei 34, there was bound to be a ''hitsuji'' year. <br />
<br />
When used as part of date, Japanese readings are used for the characters; however, when the year becomes part of a proper name, the Chinese readings are usually used. Thus 戊辰 as part of a date is read "tsuchinoe-tatsu", while it is read as "Boshin" in the [[Boshin War|Boshin (1868) War]] 戊辰戦争. Similarly 己酉約条 is the Kiyû (1609) Agreement [between Korea and Japan] , and 甲子園 is Kôshi-en (1924) Ballpark, where all high-school baseball players dream of playing.<br />
<br />
Use of cyclic dates seems to have virtually died out in the Meiji period (1868-1912). Most Japanese can recite the ''kan'' and ''shi'' in order. They generally know the branch (''shi'') of the current year and the year that they and family members were born in, but most do not know the branch for any other events, and they have no idea what the stem (''kan'') of any year is. Almanac-type calendars do have the cyclic year on them, but otherwise, the only documents I have seen dated using the cyclic year are New Years cards, and then normally only the ''shi''.<br />
<br />
===Calculating Cyclic Dates===<br />
Most modern books will translate a date expressed in the cycles into either nengô years or Western years or both, but here is how to determine a date if necessary.<br />
<br />
First you have to make a guess (G) or estimate as to the year. This is necessary because the cycles repeat every 60 years. You can look up the kanshi in the table at the end of the article on the [[Sexegenary cycle]] and add or subtract multiples of 60 of the "sample year" till you get near your year. Another way is this: Divide your guess (G) by 60 and throw away the remainder to get the quotient (Q). Calculate the position (P) of the ''kan-shi'' pair in the 60 cycle or get it from the table chart. The year is P+3+(60*Q). However, you may have to add or subtract 60 years (one cycle). For example, assume we have a letter dated 甲寅 written by someone who died in 1580. Let's take the guess G as 1570. 1570/60=26, so Q = 26. 甲寅 is 51st on the chart, so P=51. So 51+3+(60*26)= 1614, so 1614 was a 甲寅 year. But as the writer was already dead then, we subtract 60 to get 1654.<br />
<br />
If a letter is dated using just the branch, use 12 instead of 60. Thus a letter from around 1610, dated 巳ノ三月十七日 , was written in 6+3+(12*134)= 1617, or maybe 1605.<br />
<br />
==Combined and Non-combined Era and Cyclic Years==<br />
<br />
The era dates and the cyclic dates were often combined. In fact, a date like 慶長十三年戊申 (Keichô 13 tsuchinoe-saru) could be written as <br />
*慶長十三年, <br />
*慶長十三年戊申, <br />
*慶長十三年申, <br />
*戊申, <br />
*申(の),<ref>The earliest example for dating a document using just the ''shi'' that I have seen myself is 1596, and I have heard of a 1569 example. However, my guess is that that just reflects my poor sample, and the form was used earlier for more informal documents. It was certainly used much earlier to '''refer''' to years.</ref><br />
*or 慶長戊申. <br />
<br> (Note that the 年 ("year") was sometimes omitted, and sometime around the end of the 17th century it started being put after the ''kanshi'', as 元禄三庚午年 or 元禄三午年 (1690)). All these forms but the last (慶長戊申) were very common in dating documents.<ref> For example, all but the last can be found in [[Sanada Family Materials]]. The last in unambiguous, by the way, since nengô were normally changed at the beginning of the 60-year cycle.</ref> The earliest example I know of the 慶長十三(年)申 form is 1608 (If anyone has some pre-Edo examples, I would like to know), but it seems to have become the standard bureaucratic way of writing dates, at least for the bakufu and Kishû han, though 申 only was not rare for a memorandum. The Edo-period graves I have seen in western Tokyo use the 元禄三午年 form. Of course, most letters were written without any year date at all.<br />
<br />
<br />
In most cases where I saw the original document or a copy, the cyclic date was not written in line with the nengô part of the date. The two characters were often written horizontally under it, to each side of it, on a separate line, jutting out slightly from the line, etc.<br />
<br />
==Western Dating==<br />
Christians in 16th-17th century Japan knew the Christian dates. The printed translation of the ''Contemptus Mundi'' ([[Kontemutsusu Munji]]) is dated both "慶長十五年四月中旬" (Keichô 15, middle of the 4th Month) and 御救世以来千六百十年 (1610 Years since the Salvation of the World). However, during the Edo period when Christianity was forbidden, such dates were not used. <br />
<br />
Since the Meiji period the western years have been used, especially for dates outside Japan. At the present, centuries and decades are stated in the western years. Even for Japanese dates, pre-Meiji dates are usually given in western years, or at least glossed the first time each ''nengô'' is mentioned. The ''nengô'' system is still the official one, however, and most people remember dates in their own personal history using ''nengô''.<br />
<br />
Everyone, however, knows what the current year is in both systems, and especially since the end of Shôwa many orgainizations (such as the Asahi Shinbun [Newspaper]) have switched over to western dates completely. Both systems are very common on printed shop bills and receipts. <br />
<br />
When writing the current date, whether to use the era name or the Western year (AD) can depend on any one of a number of factors such as, organizational policy; attitude towards the emperor system; whatever strikes one at the moment (I have a eleven receipts from the same shop with hand-written dates, seven of which are dated "平成18年" and four of which are dated "2006年"); convenience for the computer (One computer manual wrote to the effect, "Please use Western dates, not Shôwa. We don't have anything against nengô, but we cannot predict leap years using them."); or a mixture of tradition and convenience (a bag of rice had stamped on it, "Product of the 17th year [of Heisei]. Milled on [20]05.11.22.").<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
Dates for the eras are from the [[Kojien Dictionary|''Kôjien Dictionary'']]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* [[Kojien Dictionary|''Kôjien Dictionary'']]<br />
* Ryusaku Tsunoda, et. al., comp., ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', Columbia University Press, 1958<br />
* Aston, W. G., trans., ''Nihongi : chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697'', London : Allen and Unwin. (Translation of the [[Nihon Shoki]])<br />
* Mokkan Database[http://www.nabunken.jp/Open/mokkan/mokkan1.html]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Resource Articles]][[Category:Timeline]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Year_dates&diff=22062Year dates2012-05-08T06:31:38Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Cyclic, or ''Kanshi'' 干支, system */</p>
<hr />
<div>Four major ways have been used to identify years in Japan. One is by reign years, a system used in early history; another is counting from the beginning of a year period, or era, (the ''nengô'' 年号system), which is still the official dating system; the third, now used only marginally in Japan, follows the Chinese 60-year cycle (''kanshi'' 干支 system); and the fourth is the Western, or Christian, calendar. <ref>There is also the very marginal Kôki 皇紀 system. Japan established this method of counting years in 1872. In it, Year 1 was the first year of the reign of [[Emperor Jimmu]], calculated from the [[Nihon Shoki]] to be 660 B.C. This system was mentioned in the 1898 law establishing leap years; year dates are often given in it (along with the western year) in the front of almanacs, and it was used in naming the 2600 (=1940 A.D.) Zero airplane. I also saw it on a shrine memorial stella commemorating the 26th centenary of 2601 (=1941 A.D.). However, I have never seen it used simply for a date, though there may be some people or groups who use it ideosyncratically.</ref><br />
<br />
==Reign Years==<br />
The earliest year dates used in China were the reign year of the ruler. These appear on some of the 13th-century BC bone oracles and early bronze vessels. However, in the 2nd-century BC these were replaced by era names (nengô, see below), and the [[sexagenary cycle]] cycle also started to be used for years around this time. Therefore, reign years were never used for records in Japan, though the system was known from Chinese histories like the classic ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'' (covering 722 to 481 BC).<br />
<br />
However, the editors of the [[Nihon Shoki]] for their year dates calculated the reign years of the Japanese emperors, except for the few years for which nengô existed. Thus we have dates like "in the 5th year and the 11th month of the reign of the Emperor [[Emperor Sushun|Hatsuse-be]]." <ref> ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'',1:43. </ref>. The standard historians' dates follow the Shoki, using the later standard names for the emperors, so the above date is known as "Sushun 5." <br />
<br />
In China, the "first year" of a reign was sometimes reckoned as the year a reign actually started and sometimes as the following year. However, perhaps influenced by the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', in the Shoki, reign years, including the first year (gannen 元年), started on New Year's Day and were not retroactive, so Year 1 usually starts on the New Year ''following'' the actual start of the reign. However there are some exceptions, notably Tenji 1 (662), which is the year after the death of [[Empress Seimei]], though [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] did not formally become emperor until 668.<ref>Note that when dealing with Chinese, Japanese, and Okinawan rulers, and probably others from the region as well, one has to be careful of the meaning of "ascension year" in reference material. Often it refers to the year of the "1st year" of the reign year or the "1st year" of that ruler's first nengô. However, depending on the ruler, this could be either the year of or the year after the actual ascension. </ref><br />
<br />
==Era (''Nengô'' 年号) System==<br />
===General===<br />
In the year-period system, which is still the official year-dating system in Japan, the imperial court determines that the era name (''nengô'' 年号) shall be changed to XX, a two-character name using Chinese (on) readings such as Tai-ka 大化 or Hei-sei 平成. (From 749-770 four-character names were used.) The beginnings of eras are given in reference books; there is also a list in the article on [[Japanese Eras]]. This change in name can occur at any time of year. <br />
<br />
In China, the first year period, Jian-yuan (Kengen) 建元, started in 140 A.D. In Japan, the first was Taika 大化 in [[645]] A.D., and the first period change was occasioned in [[650]] by the court's receiving the gift of a white pheasant: the period name was changed to Hakuchi 白雉. <ref>''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', Columbia University Press, 1:69, 76. </ref> After this, there were several decades when nengô were not used, except for a few months in 686, but since 701 (Taihô), the eras have been regularly established. <br />
<br />
In the period from 1336-1392 there were [[Nanboku-cho|two rival courts]]. Since the court determines the year periods, there were two sets of era names during this time. In 1910 it was officially decided that, the "southern" court had been the legitimate court during the period,<ref> Ivan Morris, ''[[The Nobility of Failure]]'', p. 387. </ref> so the "southern" era names are the official ones given in lists. However, as the "northern" era names were the ones actually used in most of the country, they are normally given somewhere in the lists, often marked as "northern dynasty."<br />
<br />
===Start of an Era===<br />
The start of a new era could be declared for any number of reasons. The principle reason was the ascension of a new emperor (dai-hamjime 代始め). Throughout most of history it was normal to proclaim the new era during the year following the actual ascension. A very late or no dai-hajime nengô often seems to indicate some type of power struggle. This is particularly noticeable in the 17th century when the Edo shogunate was trying to dominate the imperial court. Among other reasons for a new nengô were the occurrence of the first or 58th year of the 60-year cycle (see below), a felicitous omen (especially in the early period), disasters, etc. Many periods were only three or four years long. For most of history, the names had nothing to do with that of the emperor: though there was a Tenshô period, there was no "Emperor Tenshô." However, since the start of the Meiji period (1868), the only reason for a new period has been the reign of a new emperor, and the emperor is after death referred to by the name of the period he reigned in, so now we refer to the emperors Meiji, Taishô, and Shôwa. However, unlike the ancient reign-year system, the first year of new era starts on the day of the death of the previous emperor (Taishô period, Shôwa period), or on the day after (Heisei period), not the following year.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, a change in the era name can occur at any time of year. For instance, the Tenshô Era began the 28th day of the Seventh Month of 1573 and lasted until the 8th day of the Twelfth Month of 1592. New periods began during the day. However, the present period, Heisei 平成, began at exactly at midnight the morning of January 8, 1989. The exact day an era begins was not considered important until recently, however. At times, as in the Edo period, eras were treated as having started at the beginning of the year retroactively. Furthermore, as one never knows when a new period will begin, one often finds dates that officially did not exist. For example, there is a grave in western Tokyo (formerly [[Musashi province]] ) dated "Shitoku 4 (1387), 11th month," though Shitoku had ended in the 8th month. (Note that this is a "northern" ''nengô''.) In modern times, drivers licenses valid to "Shôwa 66" remained valid to 1991, though Shôwa ended in 1989.<br />
<br />
===Calculating Year Periods===<br />
The first year of an era is called "gan-nen" 元年. Subsequent years are counted from the beginning of the calendar year. For example, the Shôwa period started December 25, 1926, and the second year of Shôwa 昭和二年 started one week later on January 1, 1927. When calculating between year periods and the Western year, remember that the first year of the era is 1, not 0. So, to calculate the dates of Shôwa, which began in 1926, add or subtract 1925 (=1926-1). Thus 1945 was 1945-1925 = Shôwa 20, while Shôwa 34 was 1925+34 = 1959. For a list of eras and the years they began, see the article on [[Japanese Eras]].<br />
<br />
Dating using ''nengô'' is very settled in Japan, so there is no confusion about the years they refer to.<br />
<br />
==Cyclic, or ''Kanshi'' 干支, system==<br />
Japan early took over the [[Sexegenary cycle]] (''kanshi'' 干支) system from China. Japan and China use completely different ''nengô'', but 1504 was the year of 甲子 throughout east Asia. <br />
<br />
The system appears as a way of indicating days in the earliest Chinese writings, the 13th-century BC Shang-period oracle bones, but around the 2nd century BC it came to be used also for years. Japan adopted this system in the earliest dates we have, a sword dated 辛亥, probably 471 from the reign of [[Emperoro Yuryaku|Emperoro Yûryaku]], and a mirror from Wakayama dated 癸未年, probably 443 or 503. Also, on the 7th-century administrative wooden tablets found in various capitals, the years are indicated using the cycle.<br />
<br />
In this system, two series of characters, the ten stems (''kan'' 干) and the twelve branches (''shi'' 支 ) are used cyclically. They can be combined into a series of sixty elements (see the article on the cycle), which may be used to indicate years. 甲子, the first element of the series, can indicate the years 904, 964, 1024, 1084, 1144, 1204, and all other years separated from these by a multiple of 60. 乙巳, the 42nd element in the series, can be 886, 946, 1006, 1066, 1126, 1186, 1246, etc. It is also common to indicate a year using only the branch, or ''shi'', part of the cycle. Thus 巳 occurs every twelve years, as 886, 898, 910, etc. As the branches have gotten animal names attached to them, the years expressed by branches are often translated using animal names. A 巳 year is a "Year of the Snake," for example. Note, however, that since the cyclic terms repeat, one needs some more information than just the cyclic name to completely identify the year.<br />
<br />
The cycles do have the advantage over the era system of being predictable. There is an Ôei 25 (1418) contract selling "the ten harvests of the ten years from the ''inu'' year to the following ''hitsuji'' year." While at the time the contract was written there was no way of knowing whether or not there would be a Ôei 34, there was bound to be a ''hitsuji'' year. <br />
<br />
When used as part of date, Japanese readings are used for the characters; however, when the year becomes part of a proper name, the Chinese readings are usually used. Thus 戊辰 as part of a date is read "tsuchinoe-tatsu", while it is read as "Boshin" in the [[Boshin War|Boshin (1868) War]] 戊辰戦争. Similarly 己酉約条 is the Kiyû (1609) Agreement [between Korea and Japan] , and 甲子園 is Kôshi-en (1924) Ballpark, where all high-school baseball players dream of playing.<br />
<br />
Use of cyclic dates seems to have virtually died out in the Meiji period (1868-1912). Most Japanese can recite the ''kan'' and ''shi'' in order. They generally know the branch (''shi'') of the current year and the year that they and family members were born in, but most do not know the branch for any other events, and they have no idea what the stem (''kan'') of any year is. Almanac-type calendars do have the cyclic year on them, but otherwise, the only documents I have seen dated using the cyclic year are New Years cards, and then normally only the ''shi''.<br />
<br />
===Calculating Cyclic Dates===<br />
Most modern books will translate a date expressed in the cycles into either nengô years or Western years or both, but here is how to determine a date if necessary.<br />
<br />
First you have to make a guess (G) or estimate as to the year. This is necessary because the cycles repeat every 60 years. You can look up the kanshi in the table at the end of the article on the [[Sexegenary cycle]] and add or subtract multiples of 60 of the "sample year" till you get near your year. Another way is this: Divide your guess (G) by 60 and throw away the remainder to get the quotient (Q). Calculate the position (P) of the ''kan-shi'' pair in the 60 cycle or get it from the table chart. The year is P+3+(60*Q). However, you may have to add or subtract 60 years (one cycle). For example, assume we have a letter dated 甲寅 written by someone who died in 1580. Let's take the guess G as 1570. 1570/60=26, so Q = 26. 甲寅 is 51st on the chart, so P=51. So 51+3+(60*26)= 1614, so 1614 was a 甲寅 year. But as the writer was already dead then, we subtract 60 to get 1654.<br />
<br />
If a letter is dated using just the branch, use 12 instead of 60. Thus a letter from around 1610, dated 巳ノ三月十七日 , was written in 6+3+(12*134)= 1617, or maybe 1605.<br />
<br />
==Combined and Non-combined Era and Cyclic Years==<br />
<br />
The era dates and the cyclic dates were often combined. In fact, a date like 慶長十三年戊申 (Keichô 13 tsuchinoe-saru) could be written as <br />
*慶長十三年, <br />
*慶長十三年戊申, <br />
*慶長十三年申, <br />
*戊申, <br />
*申(の),<ref>The earliest example for dating a document using just the ''shi'' that I have seen myself is 1596, and I have heard of a 1569 example. However, my guess is that that just reflects my poor sample, and the form was used earlier for more informal documents. It was certainly used much earlier to '''refer''' to years.</ref><br />
*or 慶長戊申. <br />
<br> (Note that the 年 ("year") was sometimes omitted, and sometime around the end of the 17th century it started being put after the ''kanshi'', as 元禄三庚午年 or 元禄三午年 (1690)). All these forms but the last (慶長戊申) were very common in dating documents.<ref> For example, all but the last can be found in [[Sanada Family Materials]]. The last in unambiguous, by the way, since nengô were normally changed at the beginning of the 60-year cycle.</ref> The earliest example I know of the 慶長十三(年)申 form is 1608 (If anyone has some pre-Edo examples, I would like to know), but it seems to have become the standard bureaucratic way of writing dates, at least for the bakufu and Kishû han, though 申 only was not rare for a memorandum. The Edo-period graves I have seen in western Tokyo use the 元禄三午年 form. Of course, most letters were written without any year date at all.<br />
<br />
<br />
In most cases where I saw the original document or a copy, the cyclic date was not written in line with the nengô part of the date. The two characters were often written horizontally under it, to each side of it, on a separate line, jutting out slightly from the line, etc.<br />
<br />
==Western Dating==<br />
Christians in 16th-17th century Japan knew the Christian dates. The printed translation of the ''Contemptus Mundi'' ([[Kontemutsusu Munji]]) is dated both "慶長十五年四月中旬" (Keichô 15, middle of the 4th Month) and 御救世以来千六百十年 (1610 Years since the Salvation of the World). However, during the Edo period when Christianity was forbidden, such dates were not used. <br />
<br />
Since the Meiji period the western years have been used, especially for dates outside Japan. At the present, centuries and decades are stated in the western years. Even for Japanese dates, pre-Meiji dates are usually given in western years, or at least glossed the first time each ''nengô'' is mentioned. The ''nengô'' system is still the official one, however, and most people remember dates in their own personal history using ''nengô''.<br />
<br />
Everyone, however, knows what the current year is in both systems, and especially since the end of Shôwa many orgainizations (such as the Asahi Shinbun [Newspaper]) have switched over to western dates completely. Both systems are very common on printed shop bills and receipts. <br />
<br />
When writing the current date, whether to use the era name or the Western year (AD) can depend on any one of a number of factors such as, organizational policy; attitude towards the emperor system; whatever strikes one at the moment (I have a eleven receipts from the same shop with hand-written dates, seven of which are dated "平成18年" and four of which are dated "2006年"); convenience for the computer (One computer manual wrote to the effect, "Please use Western dates, not Shôwa. We don't have anything against nengô, but we cannot predict leap years using them."); or a mixture of tradition and convenience (a bag of rice had stamped on it, "Product of the 17th year [of Heisei]. Milled on [20]05.11.22.").<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
Dates for the eras are from the [[Kojien Dictionary|''Kôjien Dictionary'']]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* [[Kojien Dictionary|''Kôjien Dictionary'']]<br />
* Ryusaku Tsunoda, et. al., comp., ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', Columbia University Press, 1958<br />
* Aston, W. G., trans., ''Nihongi : chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697'', London : Allen and Unwin. (Translation of the [[Nihon Shoki]])<br />
<br />
[[Category:Resource Articles]][[Category:Timeline]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Year_dates&diff=22061Year dates2012-05-08T06:23:04Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Era (''Nengô'' 年号) System */</p>
<hr />
<div>Four major ways have been used to identify years in Japan. One is by reign years, a system used in early history; another is counting from the beginning of a year period, or era, (the ''nengô'' 年号system), which is still the official dating system; the third, now used only marginally in Japan, follows the Chinese 60-year cycle (''kanshi'' 干支 system); and the fourth is the Western, or Christian, calendar. <ref>There is also the very marginal Kôki 皇紀 system. Japan established this method of counting years in 1872. In it, Year 1 was the first year of the reign of [[Emperor Jimmu]], calculated from the [[Nihon Shoki]] to be 660 B.C. This system was mentioned in the 1898 law establishing leap years; year dates are often given in it (along with the western year) in the front of almanacs, and it was used in naming the 2600 (=1940 A.D.) Zero airplane. I also saw it on a shrine memorial stella commemorating the 26th centenary of 2601 (=1941 A.D.). However, I have never seen it used simply for a date, though there may be some people or groups who use it ideosyncratically.</ref><br />
<br />
==Reign Years==<br />
The earliest year dates used in China were the reign year of the ruler. These appear on some of the 13th-century BC bone oracles and early bronze vessels. However, in the 2nd-century BC these were replaced by era names (nengô, see below), and the [[sexagenary cycle]] cycle also started to be used for years around this time. Therefore, reign years were never used for records in Japan, though the system was known from Chinese histories like the classic ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'' (covering 722 to 481 BC).<br />
<br />
However, the editors of the [[Nihon Shoki]] for their year dates calculated the reign years of the Japanese emperors, except for the few years for which nengô existed. Thus we have dates like "in the 5th year and the 11th month of the reign of the Emperor [[Emperor Sushun|Hatsuse-be]]." <ref> ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'',1:43. </ref>. The standard historians' dates follow the Shoki, using the later standard names for the emperors, so the above date is known as "Sushun 5." <br />
<br />
In China, the "first year" of a reign was sometimes reckoned as the year a reign actually started and sometimes as the following year. However, perhaps influenced by the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', in the Shoki, reign years, including the first year (gannen 元年), started on New Year's Day and were not retroactive, so Year 1 usually starts on the New Year ''following'' the actual start of the reign. However there are some exceptions, notably Tenji 1 (662), which is the year after the death of [[Empress Seimei]], though [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] did not formally become emperor until 668.<ref>Note that when dealing with Chinese, Japanese, and Okinawan rulers, and probably others from the region as well, one has to be careful of the meaning of "ascension year" in reference material. Often it refers to the year of the "1st year" of the reign year or the "1st year" of that ruler's first nengô. However, depending on the ruler, this could be either the year of or the year after the actual ascension. </ref><br />
<br />
==Era (''Nengô'' 年号) System==<br />
===General===<br />
In the year-period system, which is still the official year-dating system in Japan, the imperial court determines that the era name (''nengô'' 年号) shall be changed to XX, a two-character name using Chinese (on) readings such as Tai-ka 大化 or Hei-sei 平成. (From 749-770 four-character names were used.) The beginnings of eras are given in reference books; there is also a list in the article on [[Japanese Eras]]. This change in name can occur at any time of year. <br />
<br />
In China, the first year period, Jian-yuan (Kengen) 建元, started in 140 A.D. In Japan, the first was Taika 大化 in [[645]] A.D., and the first period change was occasioned in [[650]] by the court's receiving the gift of a white pheasant: the period name was changed to Hakuchi 白雉. <ref>''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', Columbia University Press, 1:69, 76. </ref> After this, there were several decades when nengô were not used, except for a few months in 686, but since 701 (Taihô), the eras have been regularly established. <br />
<br />
In the period from 1336-1392 there were [[Nanboku-cho|two rival courts]]. Since the court determines the year periods, there were two sets of era names during this time. In 1910 it was officially decided that, the "southern" court had been the legitimate court during the period,<ref> Ivan Morris, ''[[The Nobility of Failure]]'', p. 387. </ref> so the "southern" era names are the official ones given in lists. However, as the "northern" era names were the ones actually used in most of the country, they are normally given somewhere in the lists, often marked as "northern dynasty."<br />
<br />
===Start of an Era===<br />
The start of a new era could be declared for any number of reasons. The principle reason was the ascension of a new emperor (dai-hamjime 代始め). Throughout most of history it was normal to proclaim the new era during the year following the actual ascension. A very late or no dai-hajime nengô often seems to indicate some type of power struggle. This is particularly noticeable in the 17th century when the Edo shogunate was trying to dominate the imperial court. Among other reasons for a new nengô were the occurrence of the first or 58th year of the 60-year cycle (see below), a felicitous omen (especially in the early period), disasters, etc. Many periods were only three or four years long. For most of history, the names had nothing to do with that of the emperor: though there was a Tenshô period, there was no "Emperor Tenshô." However, since the start of the Meiji period (1868), the only reason for a new period has been the reign of a new emperor, and the emperor is after death referred to by the name of the period he reigned in, so now we refer to the emperors Meiji, Taishô, and Shôwa. However, unlike the ancient reign-year system, the first year of new era starts on the day of the death of the previous emperor (Taishô period, Shôwa period), or on the day after (Heisei period), not the following year.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, a change in the era name can occur at any time of year. For instance, the Tenshô Era began the 28th day of the Seventh Month of 1573 and lasted until the 8th day of the Twelfth Month of 1592. New periods began during the day. However, the present period, Heisei 平成, began at exactly at midnight the morning of January 8, 1989. The exact day an era begins was not considered important until recently, however. At times, as in the Edo period, eras were treated as having started at the beginning of the year retroactively. Furthermore, as one never knows when a new period will begin, one often finds dates that officially did not exist. For example, there is a grave in western Tokyo (formerly [[Musashi province]] ) dated "Shitoku 4 (1387), 11th month," though Shitoku had ended in the 8th month. (Note that this is a "northern" ''nengô''.) In modern times, drivers licenses valid to "Shôwa 66" remained valid to 1991, though Shôwa ended in 1989.<br />
<br />
===Calculating Year Periods===<br />
The first year of an era is called "gan-nen" 元年. Subsequent years are counted from the beginning of the calendar year. For example, the Shôwa period started December 25, 1926, and the second year of Shôwa 昭和二年 started one week later on January 1, 1927. When calculating between year periods and the Western year, remember that the first year of the era is 1, not 0. So, to calculate the dates of Shôwa, which began in 1926, add or subtract 1925 (=1926-1). Thus 1945 was 1945-1925 = Shôwa 20, while Shôwa 34 was 1925+34 = 1959. For a list of eras and the years they began, see the article on [[Japanese Eras]].<br />
<br />
Dating using ''nengô'' is very settled in Japan, so there is no confusion about the years they refer to.<br />
<br />
==Cyclic, or ''Kanshi'' 干支, system==<br />
Japan early took over the [[Sexegenary cycle]] (''kanshi'' 干支) system from China. Japan and China use completely different ''nengô'', but 1504 was the year of 甲子 throughout east Asia. In this system, two series of characters, the ten stems (''kan'' 干) and the twelve branches (''shi'' 支 ) are used cyclically. They can be combined into a series of sixty elements (see the article on the cycle), which may be used to indicate years. 甲子, the first element of the series, can indicate the years 904, 964, 1024, 1084, 1144, 1204, and all other years separated from these by a multiple of 60. 乙巳, the 42nd element in the series, can be 886, 946, 1006, 1066, 1126, 1186, 1246, etc. It is also common to indicate a year using only the branch, or ''shi'', part of the cycle. Thus 巳 occurs every twelve years, as 886, 898, 910, etc. As the branches have gotten animal names attached to them, the years expressed by branches are often translated using animal names. A 巳 year is a "Year of the Snake," for example. Note, however, that since the cyclic terms repeat, one needs some more information than just the cyclic name to completely identify the year.<br />
<br />
The cycles do have the advantage over the era system of being predictable. There is an Ôei 25 (1418) contract selling "the ten harvests of the ten years from the ''inu'' year to the following ''hitsuji'' year." While at the time the contract was written there was no way of knowing whether or not there would be a Ôei 34, there was bound to be a ''hitsuji'' year. <br />
<br />
When used as part of date, Japanese readings are used for the characters; however, when the year becomes part of a proper name, the Chinese readings are usually used. Thus 戊辰 as part of a date is read "tsuchinoe-tatsu", while it is read as "Boshin" in the [[Boshin War|Boshin (1868) War]] 戊辰戦争. Similarly 己酉約条 is the Kiyû (1609) Agreement [between Korea and Japan] , and 甲子園 is Kôshi-en (1924) Ballpark, where all high-school baseball players dream of playing.<br />
<br />
Use of cyclic dates seems to have virtually died out in the Meiji period (1868-1912). Most Japanese can recite the ''kan'' and ''shi'' in order. They generally know the branch (''shi'') of the current year and the year that they and family members were born in, but most do not know the branch for any other events, and they have no idea what the stem (''kan'') of any year is. Almanac-type calendars do have the cyclic year on them, but otherwise, the only documents I have seen dated using the cyclic year are New Years cards, and then normally only the ''shi''.<br />
<br />
===Calculating Cyclic Dates===<br />
Most modern books will translate a date expressed in the cycles into either nengô years or Western years or both, but here is how to determine a date if necessary.<br />
<br />
First you have to make a guess (G) or estimate as to the year. This is necessary because the cycles repeat every 60 years. You can look up the kanshi in the table at the end of the article on the [[Sexegenary cycle]] and add or subtract multiples of 60 of the "sample year" till you get near your year. Another way is this: Divide your guess (G) by 60 and throw away the remainder to get the quotient (Q). Calculate the position (P) of the ''kan-shi'' pair in the 60 cycle or get it from the table chart. The year is P+3+(60*Q). However, you may have to add or subtract 60 years (one cycle). For example, assume we have a letter dated 甲寅 written by someone who died in 1580. Let's take the guess G as 1570. 1570/60=26, so Q = 26. 甲寅 is 50th on the chart, so P=50. So 50+3+(60*26)= 1613, so 1613 was a 甲寅 year. But as the writer was already dead then, we subtract 60 to get 1653.<br />
<br />
If a letter is dated using just the branch, use 12 instead of 60. Thus a letter from around 1610, dated 巳ノ三月十七日 , was written in 6+3+(12*134)= 1617, or maybe 1605. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Combined and Non-combined Era and Cyclic Years==<br />
<br />
The era dates and the cyclic dates were often combined. In fact, a date like 慶長十三年戊申 (Keichô 13 tsuchinoe-saru) could be written as <br />
*慶長十三年, <br />
*慶長十三年戊申, <br />
*慶長十三年申, <br />
*戊申, <br />
*申(の),<ref>The earliest example for dating a document using just the ''shi'' that I have seen myself is 1596, and I have heard of a 1569 example. However, my guess is that that just reflects my poor sample, and the form was used earlier for more informal documents. It was certainly used much earlier to '''refer''' to years.</ref><br />
*or 慶長戊申. <br />
<br> (Note that the 年 ("year") was sometimes omitted, and sometime around the end of the 17th century it started being put after the ''kanshi'', as 元禄三庚午年 or 元禄三午年 (1690)). All these forms but the last (慶長戊申) were very common in dating documents.<ref> For example, all but the last can be found in [[Sanada Family Materials]]. The last in unambiguous, by the way, since nengô were normally changed at the beginning of the 60-year cycle.</ref> The earliest example I know of the 慶長十三(年)申 form is 1608 (If anyone has some pre-Edo examples, I would like to know), but it seems to have become the standard bureaucratic way of writing dates, at least for the bakufu and Kishû han, though 申 only was not rare for a memorandum. The Edo-period graves I have seen in western Tokyo use the 元禄三午年 form. Of course, most letters were written without any year date at all.<br />
<br />
<br />
In most cases where I saw the original document or a copy, the cyclic date was not written in line with the nengô part of the date. The two characters were often written horizontally under it, to each side of it, on a separate line, jutting out slightly from the line, etc.<br />
<br />
==Western Dating==<br />
Christians in 16th-17th century Japan knew the Christian dates. The printed translation of the ''Contemptus Mundi'' ([[Kontemutsusu Munji]]) is dated both "慶長十五年四月中旬" (Keichô 15, middle of the 4th Month) and 御救世以来千六百十年 (1610 Years since the Salvation of the World). However, during the Edo period when Christianity was forbidden, such dates were not used. <br />
<br />
Since the Meiji period the western years have been used, especially for dates outside Japan. At the present, centuries and decades are stated in the western years. Even for Japanese dates, pre-Meiji dates are usually given in western years, or at least glossed the first time each ''nengô'' is mentioned. The ''nengô'' system is still the official one, however, and most people remember dates in their own personal history using ''nengô''.<br />
<br />
Everyone, however, knows what the current year is in both systems, and especially since the end of Shôwa many orgainizations (such as the Asahi Shinbun [Newspaper]) have switched over to western dates completely. Both systems are very common on printed shop bills and receipts. <br />
<br />
When writing the current date, whether to use the era name or the Western year (AD) can depend on any one of a number of factors such as, organizational policy; attitude towards the emperor system; whatever strikes one at the moment (I have a eleven receipts from the same shop with hand-written dates, seven of which are dated "平成18年" and four of which are dated "2006年"); convenience for the computer (One computer manual wrote to the effect, "Please use Western dates, not Shôwa. We don't have anything against nengô, but we cannot predict leap years using them."); or a mixture of tradition and convenience (a bag of rice had stamped on it, "Product of the 17th year [of Heisei]. Milled on [20]05.11.22.").<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
Dates for the eras are from the [[Kojien Dictionary|''Kôjien Dictionary'']]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* [[Kojien Dictionary|''Kôjien Dictionary'']]<br />
* Ryusaku Tsunoda, et. al., comp., ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', Columbia University Press, 1958<br />
* Aston, W. G., trans., ''Nihongi : chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697'', London : Allen and Unwin. (Translation of the [[Nihon Shoki]])<br />
<br />
[[Category:Resource Articles]][[Category:Timeline]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Year_dates&diff=22060Year dates2012-05-08T06:11:44Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Reign Years */</p>
<hr />
<div>Four major ways have been used to identify years in Japan. One is by reign years, a system used in early history; another is counting from the beginning of a year period, or era, (the ''nengô'' 年号system), which is still the official dating system; the third, now used only marginally in Japan, follows the Chinese 60-year cycle (''kanshi'' 干支 system); and the fourth is the Western, or Christian, calendar. <ref>There is also the very marginal Kôki 皇紀 system. Japan established this method of counting years in 1872. In it, Year 1 was the first year of the reign of [[Emperor Jimmu]], calculated from the [[Nihon Shoki]] to be 660 B.C. This system was mentioned in the 1898 law establishing leap years; year dates are often given in it (along with the western year) in the front of almanacs, and it was used in naming the 2600 (=1940 A.D.) Zero airplane. I also saw it on a shrine memorial stella commemorating the 26th centenary of 2601 (=1941 A.D.). However, I have never seen it used simply for a date, though there may be some people or groups who use it ideosyncratically.</ref><br />
<br />
==Reign Years==<br />
The earliest year dates used in China were the reign year of the ruler. These appear on some of the 13th-century BC bone oracles and early bronze vessels. However, in the 2nd-century BC these were replaced by era names (nengô, see below), and the [[sexagenary cycle]] cycle also started to be used for years around this time. Therefore, reign years were never used for records in Japan, though the system was known from Chinese histories like the classic ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'' (covering 722 to 481 BC).<br />
<br />
However, the editors of the [[Nihon Shoki]] for their year dates calculated the reign years of the Japanese emperors, except for the few years for which nengô existed. Thus we have dates like "in the 5th year and the 11th month of the reign of the Emperor [[Emperor Sushun|Hatsuse-be]]." <ref> ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'',1:43. </ref>. The standard historians' dates follow the Shoki, using the later standard names for the emperors, so the above date is known as "Sushun 5." <br />
<br />
In China, the "first year" of a reign was sometimes reckoned as the year a reign actually started and sometimes as the following year. However, perhaps influenced by the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', in the Shoki, reign years, including the first year (gannen 元年), started on New Year's Day and were not retroactive, so Year 1 usually starts on the New Year ''following'' the actual start of the reign. However there are some exceptions, notably Tenji 1 (662), which is the year after the death of [[Empress Seimei]], though [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] did not formally become emperor until 668.<ref>Note that when dealing with Chinese, Japanese, and Okinawan rulers, and probably others from the region as well, one has to be careful of the meaning of "ascension year" in reference material. Often it refers to the year of the "1st year" of the reign year or the "1st year" of that ruler's first nengô. However, depending on the ruler, this could be either the year of or the year after the actual ascension. </ref><br />
<br />
==Era (''Nengô'' 年号) System==<br />
===General===<br />
In the year-period system, which is still the official year-dating system in Japan, the imperial court determines that the era name (''nengô'' 年号) shall be changed to XX, a two-character name using Chinese (on) readings such as Tai-ka 大化 or Hei-sei 平成. (From 749-770 four-character names were used.) The beginnings of eras are given in reference books; there is also a list in the article on [[Japanese Eras]]. This change in name can occur at any time of year. <br />
<br />
In China, the first year period, Jian-yuan (Kengen) 建元, started in 140 A.D. In Japan, the first was Taika 大化 in [[645]] A.D., and the first period change was occasioned in [[650]] by the court's receiving the gift of a white pheasant: the period name was changed to Hakuchi 白雉. <ref>''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', Columbia University Press, 1:69, 76. </ref> After this, there were several decades when the names were not settled and the reign-year system was also used, but since [[701]] (Taihô), the eras have been reasonably established. <br />
<br />
In the period from 1336-1392 there were [[Nanboku-cho|two rival courts]]. Since the court determines the year periods, there were two sets of era names during this time. In 1910 it was officially decided that, the "southern" court had been the legitimate court during the period,<ref> Ivan Morris, ''[[The Nobility of Failure]]'', p. 387. </ref> so the "southern" era names are the official ones given in lists. However, as the "northern" era names were the ones actually used in most of the country, they are normally given somewhere in the lists, often marked as "northern dynasty."<br />
<br />
<br />
===Start of an Era===<br />
The start of a new era could be declared for any number of reasons. Among them were the occurrence of the first or 58th year of the 60-year cycle (see below), a new emperor (usually sometime during the year after the death of the previous emperor), natural disasters, etc. Many periods were only three or four years long. For most of history, the names had nothing to do with that of the emperor; though there was a Tenshô period, there was no "Emperor Tenshô." Furthermore, a change of emperor did not necessarily mean a new period. However, since the start of the Meiji period (1868), the only reason for a new period has been the reign of a new emperor,<ref>This was made official in 1979.</ref> and the emperor is after death referred to by the name of the period he reigned in, so now we refer to the emperors Meiji, Taishô, and Shôwa. However, unlike the ancient reign-year system, the new era starts on the day of the death of the previous emperor (Taishô period, Shôwa period), or on the day after (Heisei period), not from the next year.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, a change in the era name can occur at any time of year. For instance, the Tenshô Era began the 28th day of the Seventh Month of 1573 and lasted until the 8th day of the Twelfth Month of 1592. New periods began during the day. However, the present period, Heisei 平成, began at exactly at midnight the morning of January 8, 1989. The exact day an era begins was not considered important until recently, however. At times, as in the Edo period, eras were treated as having started at the beginning of the year retroactively. Furthermore, as one never knows when a new period will begin, one often finds dates that officially did not exist. For example, there is a grave in western Tokyo (formerly [[Musashi province]] ) dated "Shitoku 4 (1387), 11th month," though Shitoku had ended in the 8th month. (Note that this is a "northern" ''nengô''.) In modern times, drivers licenses valid to "Shôwa 66" remained valid to 1991, though Shôwa ended in 1989.<br />
<br />
===Calculating Year Periods===<br />
The first year of an era is called "gan-nen" 元年. Subsequent years are counted from the beginning of the calendar year. For example, the Shôwa period started December 25, 1926, and the second year of Shôwa 昭和二年 started one week later on January 1, 1927. When calculating between year periods and the Western year, remember that the first year of the era is 1, not 0. So, to calculate the dates of Shôwa, which began in 1926, add or subtract 1925 (=1926-1). Thus 1945 was 1945-1925 = Shôwa 20, while Shôwa 34 was 1925+34 = 1959. For a list of eras and the years they began, see the article on [[Japanese Eras]].<br />
<br />
Dating using ''nengô'' is very settled in Japan, so there is no confusion about interpreting them in Japanese. <br />
<br />
==Cyclic, or ''Kanshi'' 干支, system==<br />
Japan early took over the [[Sexegenary cycle]] (''kanshi'' 干支) system from China. Japan and China use completely different ''nengô'', but 1504 was the year of 甲子 throughout east Asia. In this system, two series of characters, the ten stems (''kan'' 干) and the twelve branches (''shi'' 支 ) are used cyclically. They can be combined into a series of sixty elements (see the article on the cycle), which may be used to indicate years. 甲子, the first element of the series, can indicate the years 904, 964, 1024, 1084, 1144, 1204, and all other years separated from these by a multiple of 60. 乙巳, the 42nd element in the series, can be 886, 946, 1006, 1066, 1126, 1186, 1246, etc. It is also common to indicate a year using only the branch, or ''shi'', part of the cycle. Thus 巳 occurs every twelve years, as 886, 898, 910, etc. As the branches have gotten animal names attached to them, the years expressed by branches are often translated using animal names. A 巳 year is a "Year of the Snake," for example. Note, however, that since the cyclic terms repeat, one needs some more information than just the cyclic name to completely identify the year.<br />
<br />
The cycles do have the advantage over the era system of being predictable. There is an Ôei 25 (1418) contract selling "the ten harvests of the ten years from the ''inu'' year to the following ''hitsuji'' year." While at the time the contract was written there was no way of knowing whether or not there would be a Ôei 34, there was bound to be a ''hitsuji'' year. <br />
<br />
When used as part of date, Japanese readings are used for the characters; however, when the year becomes part of a proper name, the Chinese readings are usually used. Thus 戊辰 as part of a date is read "tsuchinoe-tatsu", while it is read as "Boshin" in the [[Boshin War|Boshin (1868) War]] 戊辰戦争. Similarly 己酉約条 is the Kiyû (1609) Agreement [between Korea and Japan] , and 甲子園 is Kôshi-en (1924) Ballpark, where all high-school baseball players dream of playing.<br />
<br />
Use of cyclic dates seems to have virtually died out in the Meiji period (1868-1912). Most Japanese can recite the ''kan'' and ''shi'' in order. They generally know the branch (''shi'') of the current year and the year that they and family members were born in, but most do not know the branch for any other events, and they have no idea what the stem (''kan'') of any year is. Almanac-type calendars do have the cyclic year on them, but otherwise, the only documents I have seen dated using the cyclic year are New Years cards, and then normally only the ''shi''.<br />
<br />
===Calculating Cyclic Dates===<br />
Most modern books will translate a date expressed in the cycles into either nengô years or Western years or both, but here is how to determine a date if necessary.<br />
<br />
First you have to make a guess (G) or estimate as to the year. This is necessary because the cycles repeat every 60 years. You can look up the kanshi in the table at the end of the article on the [[Sexegenary cycle]] and add or subtract multiples of 60 of the "sample year" till you get near your year. Another way is this: Divide your guess (G) by 60 and throw away the remainder to get the quotient (Q). Calculate the position (P) of the ''kan-shi'' pair in the 60 cycle or get it from the table chart. The year is P+3+(60*Q). However, you may have to add or subtract 60 years (one cycle). For example, assume we have a letter dated 甲寅 written by someone who died in 1580. Let's take the guess G as 1570. 1570/60=26, so Q = 26. 甲寅 is 50th on the chart, so P=50. So 50+3+(60*26)= 1613, so 1613 was a 甲寅 year. But as the writer was already dead then, we subtract 60 to get 1653.<br />
<br />
If a letter is dated using just the branch, use 12 instead of 60. Thus a letter from around 1610, dated 巳ノ三月十七日 , was written in 6+3+(12*134)= 1617, or maybe 1605. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Combined and Non-combined Era and Cyclic Years==<br />
<br />
The era dates and the cyclic dates were often combined. In fact, a date like 慶長十三年戊申 (Keichô 13 tsuchinoe-saru) could be written as <br />
*慶長十三年, <br />
*慶長十三年戊申, <br />
*慶長十三年申, <br />
*戊申, <br />
*申(の),<ref>The earliest example for dating a document using just the ''shi'' that I have seen myself is 1596, and I have heard of a 1569 example. However, my guess is that that just reflects my poor sample, and the form was used earlier for more informal documents. It was certainly used much earlier to '''refer''' to years.</ref><br />
*or 慶長戊申. <br />
<br> (Note that the 年 ("year") was sometimes omitted, and sometime around the end of the 17th century it started being put after the ''kanshi'', as 元禄三庚午年 or 元禄三午年 (1690)). All these forms but the last (慶長戊申) were very common in dating documents.<ref> For example, all but the last can be found in [[Sanada Family Materials]]. The last in unambiguous, by the way, since nengô were normally changed at the beginning of the 60-year cycle.</ref> The earliest example I know of the 慶長十三(年)申 form is 1608 (If anyone has some pre-Edo examples, I would like to know), but it seems to have become the standard bureaucratic way of writing dates, at least for the bakufu and Kishû han, though 申 only was not rare for a memorandum. The Edo-period graves I have seen in western Tokyo use the 元禄三午年 form. Of course, most letters were written without any year date at all.<br />
<br />
<br />
In most cases where I saw the original document or a copy, the cyclic date was not written in line with the nengô part of the date. The two characters were often written horizontally under it, to each side of it, on a separate line, jutting out slightly from the line, etc.<br />
<br />
==Western Dating==<br />
Christians in 16th-17th century Japan knew the Christian dates. The printed translation of the ''Contemptus Mundi'' ([[Kontemutsusu Munji]]) is dated both "慶長十五年四月中旬" (Keichô 15, middle of the 4th Month) and 御救世以来千六百十年 (1610 Years since the Salvation of the World). However, during the Edo period when Christianity was forbidden, such dates were not used. <br />
<br />
Since the Meiji period the western years have been used, especially for dates outside Japan. At the present, centuries and decades are stated in the western years. Even for Japanese dates, pre-Meiji dates are usually given in western years, or at least glossed the first time each ''nengô'' is mentioned. The ''nengô'' system is still the official one, however, and most people remember dates in their own personal history using ''nengô''.<br />
<br />
Everyone, however, knows what the current year is in both systems, and especially since the end of Shôwa many orgainizations (such as the Asahi Shinbun [Newspaper]) have switched over to western dates completely. Both systems are very common on printed shop bills and receipts. <br />
<br />
When writing the current date, whether to use the era name or the Western year (AD) can depend on any one of a number of factors such as, organizational policy; attitude towards the emperor system; whatever strikes one at the moment (I have a eleven receipts from the same shop with hand-written dates, seven of which are dated "平成18年" and four of which are dated "2006年"); convenience for the computer (One computer manual wrote to the effect, "Please use Western dates, not Shôwa. We don't have anything against nengô, but we cannot predict leap years using them."); or a mixture of tradition and convenience (a bag of rice had stamped on it, "Product of the 17th year [of Heisei]. Milled on [20]05.11.22.").<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
Dates for the eras are from the [[Kojien Dictionary|''Kôjien Dictionary'']]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* [[Kojien Dictionary|''Kôjien Dictionary'']]<br />
* Ryusaku Tsunoda, et. al., comp., ''Sources of Japanese Tradition'', Columbia University Press, 1958<br />
* Aston, W. G., trans., ''Nihongi : chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697'', London : Allen and Unwin. (Translation of the [[Nihon Shoki]])<br />
<br />
[[Category:Resource Articles]][[Category:Timeline]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Emperors_of_Japan&diff=21555Emperors of Japan2012-01-18T01:48:17Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Table 2 (Nanboku) */ Inserted table</p>
<hr />
<div>The succession of Emperors as described in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' and the ''[[Kojiki]]'' cannot be taken at face-value. Neither can the presented dates for those before reign of [[Emperor Kimmei]], who ruled from [[539]] to [[571]]<ref>Funke, Mark C. Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 49, No. 1. (Spring, 1994), page 11.</ref> be trusted. <br />
<br />
The following list has been divided up by eras, and most importantly by those that fall under the "mythological" or "historical" categories. [[Emperor Sujin]] is believed to have been the first "historical" Emperor (being the first Emperor to rule in the growing [[Yamato province|Yamato]] region) after the tribal confederacies that had held power previously--this does not mean, however, that he and those that followed did not have highly ficionalized lives.<br />
<br />
Recent scholarship has raised the possibility that Emperors [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] and [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]], and [[Empress Jingu|Empress Jing&ucirc;]] were completely ficticious characters<ref>Edwards, Walter. In Pursuit of Himiko. Postwar Archaeology and the Location of Yamatai. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 51, No. 1. (Spring, 1996), page 60n.</ref>. This assertion could very well apply to many other early Emperors, while others are most likely composite figures--an amalgamation of various important figures in early Japan. <br />
<br />
==Mythological==<br />
1. [[Emperor Jimmu|Jimmu]] 660 - 582 BC <br />
<br />
2. [[Emperor Suizei|Suizei]] 581 - 549 <br />
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3. [[Emperor Annei|Annei]] 549 - 511<br />
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4. [[Emperor Itoku|Itoku]] 510 - 476 <br />
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5. [[Emperor Kosho|K&ocirc;sh&ocirc;]] 475 - 393 <br />
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6. [[Emperor Koan|K&ocirc;an]] 392 - 291 <br />
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7. [[Emperor Korei|K&ocirc;rei]] 290 - 215 <br />
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8. [[Emperor Kogen|K&ocirc;gen]] 214 - 158 <br />
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9. [[Emperor Kaika|Kaika]] 157 - 98<br />
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==Historical==<br />
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10. [[Emperor Sujin|Sujin]] 97-30 <br />
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11. [[Emperor Suinin|Suinin]] 29 BC- 70 AD<br />
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12. [[Emperor Keiko|Keiko]] 71 - 130 <br />
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13. [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] 131 - 191 <br />
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14. [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]] 192 - 200<br />
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: [[Empress Jingu|Jing&ucirc;]] 209 - 269 (Regent) <br />
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15. [[Emperor Ojin|&Ocirc;jin]] 270 - 310 <br />
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16. [[Emperor Nintoku|Nintoku]] 313 - 399 <br />
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17. [[Emperor Richu|Rich&ucirc;]] 400 - 405 <br />
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18. [[Emperor Hanzei|Hanzei]] 406 - 410 <br />
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19. [[Emperor Ingyo|Ingy&ocirc;]] 411 - 453 <br />
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20. [[Emperor Anko|Ank&ocirc;]] 453 - 456 <br />
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21. [[Emperor Yuryaku|Y&ucirc;ryaku]] 456 - 479 <br />
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22. [[Emperor Seinei|Seinei]] 480 - 484 <br />
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23. [[Emperor Kenzo|Kenso]] 485 - 487 <br />
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24. [[Emperor Ninken|Ninken]] 488 - 498 <br />
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25. [[Emperor Buretsu|Buretsu]] 498 - 506 <br />
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26. [[Emperor Keitai|Keitai]] 507 - 531 <br />
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27. [[Emperor Ankan|Ankan]] 531 - 536<br />
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===Asuka Period 飛鳥時代===<br />
28. [[Emperor Senka|Senka]] 536 - 539 <br />
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29. [[Emperor Kimmei|Kimmei]] 540 - 571 <br />
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30. [[Emperor Bidatsu|Bidatsu]] 572 - 585 <br />
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31. [[Emperor Yomei|Yomei]] 585 - 587 <br />
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32. [[Emperor Sushun|Sushun]] 588 - 592 <br />
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33. [[Empress Suiko|Suiko]] 593 - 628 <br />
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34. [[Emperor Jomei|Jomei]] 629 - 641 <br />
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35. [[Empress Kogyoku|Kogyoku (Saimei)]] 642 - 644 <br />
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36. [[Emperor Kotoku|Kotoku (Taika)]] 645 - 654 <br />
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37. [[Empress Saimei|Saimei]] 655 - 660 <br />
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38. [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] 661 - 670 <br />
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39. [[Emperor Kobun|Kobun]] 671 - 672 <br />
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40. [[Emperor Temmu|Temmu]] 673 - 685 <br />
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41. [[Empress Jito|Jito]] 686 - 696 <br />
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42. [[Emperor Mommu|Mommu]] 697 - 706 <br />
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===Nara Period 奈良時代===<br />
43. [[Gemmei]] 707-714 <br />
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44. [[Gensho|Genshô]] (Yoro) 715-723 <br />
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45. [[Shomu]] 724-749 <br />
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46. [[Koken]] (Shotoku) 749-758 <br />
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47. [[Junnin]] 758-763 <br />
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48. [[Shotoku]] (Koken) 764-770 <br />
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49. [[Konin]] 770-780<br />
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===Heian Period 平安時代===<br />
50. [[Kammu]] 781-806 <br />
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51. [[Heizei]] 806-809 <br />
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52. [[Saga]] 809-823 <br />
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53. [[Junna]] 823-833 <br />
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54. [[Nimmyo]] 833-850 <br />
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55. [[Montoku]] 850-858 <br />
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56. [[Seiwa]] 858-876 <br />
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57. [[Yozei]] 876-884 <br />
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58. [[Koko]] 884-887 <br />
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59. [[Uda]] 887-897 <br />
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60. [[Daigo]] 897-930 <br />
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61. [[Suzaku]] 930-946 <br />
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62. [[Murakami]] 946-967 <br />
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63. [[Reizei]] 967-969 <br />
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64. [[Enyu]] 969-984 <br />
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65. [[Kazan]] 984-986 <br />
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66. [[Ichijo|Ichijô]] 986-1011 <br />
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67. [[Sanjo]] 1011-1016 <br />
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68. [[Go-Ichijo|Go-Ichijô]] 1016-1036 <br />
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69. [[Go-Suzaku]] 1036-1045 <br />
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70. [[Go-Reizei]] 1045-1068 <br />
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71. [[Go-Sanjo]] 1068-1072 <br />
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72. [[Shirakawa]] 1072-1086 <br />
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73. [[Horikawa]] 1086-1107 <br />
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74. [[Toba]] 1107-1123 <br />
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75. [[Sutoku]] 1123-1141 <br />
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76. [[Konoe]] 1141-1155 <br />
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77. [[Go-Shirakawa]] 1155-1158 <br />
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78. [[Nijo|Nijô]] 1158-1165 <br />
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79. [[Rokujo|Rokujô]] 1165-1168 <br />
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80. [[Takakura]] 1168-1180 <br />
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81. [[Antoku]] 1180-1183<br />
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===Kamakura Period 鎌倉時代===<br />
82. [[Go-Toba]] 1183-1198 <br />
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83. [[Tsuchimikado]] 1198-1210 <br />
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84. [[Juntoku]] 1201-1221 <br />
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85. [[Chukyo]] 1221 <br />
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86. [[Go-Horikawa]] 1221-1232 <br />
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87. [[Shijo]] 1232-1242 <br />
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88. [[Go-Saga]] 1242-1246 <br />
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89. [[Go-Fukakusa]] 1246-1259 <br />
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90. [[Kameyama]] 1259-1274 <br />
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91. [[Go-Uda]] 1274-1287 <br />
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92. [[Fushimi]] 1288-1298 <br />
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93. [[Go-Fushimi]] 1298-1301 <br />
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94. [[Go-Nijo|Go-Nijô]] 1301-1308 <br />
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95. [[Hanazono]] 1308-1318<br />
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===Muromachi Period 室町時代===<br />
96. [[Emperor Go-Daigo|Go-Daigo]] 1318-1339 <br />
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97. Go-Murakami 1339-1367 <br />
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98. Chokei 1368-1383 <br />
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99. Go-Kameyama 1383-1392 <br />
<br />
====Northern Court====<br />
*Kôgon 1331-1333 <br />
*Kômyô 1336-1347 <br />
*Sukô 1348-1351 <br />
*Go-Kôgon 1352-1370 <br />
*Go-En'yû 1371-1372 <br />
<br />
<br />
100. Go-Komatsu 1392-1412 <br />
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101. Shôkô 1412-1427 <br />
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102. Go-Hanazono 1428-1463 <br />
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103. Go-Tsuchimakado 1464-1499 <br />
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104. Go-Kashiwabara 1500-1525 <br />
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105. Go-Nara 1526-1556 <br />
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106. [[Emperor Ogimachi|Ôgimachi]] 1557-1585 <br />
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107. Go-Yôzei 1586-1610<br />
<br />
===Edo Period 江戸時代===<br />
108. Go-Mizunoo 1611-1629 <br />
<br />
109. Meishô 1629-1643 <br />
<br />
110. Go-Kômyô 1643-1653 <br />
<br />
111. Go-Sai 1654-1662 <br />
<br />
112. Reigen 1663-1686 <br />
<br />
113. Higashiyama 1687-1709 <br />
<br />
114. Nakamikado 1709-1735 <br />
<br />
115. Sakuramachi 1735-1746 <br />
<br />
116. Momozono 1747-1761 <br />
<br />
117. Go-Sakuramachi 1762-1770 <br />
<br />
118. Go-Momozono 1770-1778 <br />
<br />
119. Kokaku 1779-1816 <br />
<br />
120. Ninko 1817-1845 <br />
<br />
121. Komei 1846-1867<br />
<br />
===Meiji Period 明治時代===<br />
<br />
122. [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]] 1868-1912<br />
<br />
===Modern Era 現代===<br />
123. Taishô 1912 - 1926<br />
<br />
124. Shôwa 1926 - 1989<br />
<br />
125. Heisei 1989 - Present<br />
<br />
==Emperors and Eras==<br />
===Table 1===<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Kotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taika||大化||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hakuchi||白雉||650<br />
|-<br />
|Saimei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||655<br />
|-<br />
|Tenji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||661<br />
|-<br />
|Kobun||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||671<br />
|-<br />
|Temmu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||673<br />
|-<br />
|Jito||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||686<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shuchô||朱鳥||686<br />
|-<br />
|Mommu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||697<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taihô||大宝||701<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiun||慶雲||704<br />
|-<br />
|Gemmei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||707<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôrô||養老||708<br />
|-<br />
|Genshô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Reiki||霊亀||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||717<br />
|-<br />
|Shomu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jinki||神亀||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô||天平||729<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-kanpô||天平感宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|Koken||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-shôhô||天平勝宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-hôji||天平宝字||757<br />
|-<br />
|Junnin||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||758<br />
|-<br />
|Shotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||764<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-jingo||天平神護||765<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jingo-keiun||神護景雲||767<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôki||宝亀||770<br />
|-<br />
|Kammu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ô||天応||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enryaku||延暦||782<br />
|-<br />
|Heizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||806<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daidô||大同||806<br />
|-<br />
|Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||809<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kônin||弘仁||810<br />
|-<br />
|Junna||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||823<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenchô||天長||824<br />
|-<br />
|Nimmyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||833<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôwa||承和||834<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉祥||848<br />
|-<br />
|Montoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||850<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninju||仁寿||851<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Saikô||斉衡||854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennan||天安||857<br />
|-<br />
|Seiwa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||858<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgan||貞観||859<br />
|-<br />
|Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||876<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gangyô||元慶||877<br />
|-<br />
|Koko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||884<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninna||仁和||885<br />
|-<br />
|Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||887<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpyô||寛平||889<br />
|-<br />
|Daigo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||897<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtai||昌泰||898<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Engi||延喜||901<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enchô||延長||923<br />
|-<br />
|Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||930<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhei||承平||931<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengyô||天慶||938<br />
|-<br />
|Murakami||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||946<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô||天正||947<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'yô||天養||957<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôwa||応和||961<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhô||康保||964<br />
|-<br />
|Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||967<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Anna||安和||968<br />
|-<br />
|Enyu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||969<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenryaku||天暦||970<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'en||天延||973<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||貞元||976<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengen||天元||978<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikan||永観||983<br />
|-<br />
|Kazan||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||984<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanna||寛和||985<br />
|-<br />
|Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||986<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eien||永延||987<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiso||永祚||988<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôryaku||正暦||990<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôtoku||長徳||995<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôhô||長保||999<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kankô||寛弘||1004<br />
|-<br />
|Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1011<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôwa||長和||1012<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1016<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kannin||寛仁||1017<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jian||治安||1021<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manju||万寿||1024<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôgen||長元||1028<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1036<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôryaku||長暦||1037<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyû||長久||1040<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kantoku||寛徳||1044<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1045<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永承||1046<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengi||天喜||1053<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhei||康平||1058<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jiryaku||治暦||1065<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1068<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyû||延久||1069<br />
|-<br />
|Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1072<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhô||承保||1074<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôryaku||承暦||1077<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eihô||永保||1081<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôtoku||応徳||1084<br />
|-<br />
|Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1086<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanji||寛治||1087<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kahô||嘉保||1094<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eichô||永長||1096<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôtoku||承徳||1097<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôwa||康和||1099<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôji||長治||1104<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉承||1106<br />
|-<br />
|Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1107<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennin||天仁||1108<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ei||天永||1110<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyû||永久||1113<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gen'ei||元永||1118<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôan||保安||1120<br />
|-<br />
|Sutoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1123<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenji||天治||1124<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiji||大治||1126<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tentoku||天徳||1131<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôshô||長承||1132<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôen||保延||1135<br />
|-<br />
|Konoe||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiji||永治||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||康治||1142<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tokuji||徳治||1144<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûan||久安||1145<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninpei||仁平||1151<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûju||久寿||1154<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1155<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôgen||保元||1156<br />
|-<br />
|Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1158<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heiji||平治||1159<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiryaku||永暦||1160<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôhô||応保||1161<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkan||長寛||1163<br />
|-<br />
|Rokujô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiman||永万||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninnan||仁安||1166<br />
|-<br />
|Takakura||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1168<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaô||嘉応||1169<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôan||承安||1171<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Angen||安元||1175<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jishô||治承||1177<br />
|-<br />
|Antoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1180<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||1181<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Juei||寿永||1182<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1183<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genryaku||元暦||1184<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunji||文治||1185<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenkyû||建久||1190<br />
|-<br />
|Tsuchimikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1198<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôji||正治||1199<br />
|-<br />
|Juntoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kennin||建仁||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genkyû||元久||1204<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ken'ei||建永||1206<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||承元||1207<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenryaku||建暦||1211<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenpô]||建保||1213<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyû||承久||1219<br />
|-<br />
|Chukyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||貞応||1222<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gennin||元仁||1224<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Karoku||嘉禄||1225<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Antei||安貞||1227<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanki||寛喜||1229<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Shijo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôei||貞永||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpuku||天福||1233<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunryaku||文暦||1234<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Katei||嘉禎||1235<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ryakunin||暦仁||1238<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||En'ô||延応||1239<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninji||仁治||1240<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1242<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kangen||寛元||1243<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fukakusa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1246<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôji||宝治||1247<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenchô||建長||1249<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôgen||康元||1256<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôka||正嘉||1257<br />
|-<br />
|Kameyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôgen||正元||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ô||文応||1260<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôcho||弘長||1261<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ei||文永||1264<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1274<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenji||建治||1275<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôan||弘安||1278<br />
|-<br />
|Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôô||正応||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Einin||永仁||1293<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1298<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôan||正安||1299<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1301<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kengen||乾元||1302<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kagen||嘉元||1303<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Wadô||和銅||1306<br />
|-<br />
|Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkei||延慶||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôchô||応長||1311<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||正和||1312<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunpô||文保||1317<br />
|}<br />
===Table 2 (Nanboku)===<br />
<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Nanboku Court Period'''<br />
! style="text-align:center" colspan="2" | Southern<br />
! style="text-align:center" colspan="2" | Northern<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | 96. Go-Daigo 1318-1339|| colspan = "2" | 96. Go-Daigo 1318-1331<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1319 元応 Gen'ô|| &nbsp; || 1319 元応 Gen'ô<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; ||1326 嘉暦 Karyaku|| &nbsp; ||1326 嘉暦 Karyaku<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1329 元徳 Gentoku|| &nbsp; || 1329 元徳 Gentoku<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1331.8.9 元弘 Genkô (~1334)|| &nbsp; || 1331.8.9 元弘 Genkô (~1332)<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| colspan = "2" | #97. Kôgon 1331.9.29-1333<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1332 正慶 Shôkei (~1334)<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| colspan = "2" | (Godaigô 1333-1336)<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1334 建武 Kenmu(~1336)|| &nbsp; || 1334 建武 Kenmu(~1338)<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1336 延元 Engen(~1340)|| colspan = "2" | #98 Kômyô 光明1336-1347<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1338 暦応 Ryakuô(~1342)<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | 97. Go-Murakami 1339-1367|| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1340 興国 Kôkoku|| &nbsp; || 1342 康永 Kôei<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1346 正平 Shôhei|| &nbsp; || 1345 貞和 Jôwa<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| colspan = "2" | Sukô 崇光1348-1351.11.26 <br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1350 観応 Kannô <br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| style="text-align:center" colspan = "2" | interregnum after Sukô et al. were kidnapped<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| colspan = "2" | Go-Kôgon 1352.8.17-1370<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1352.9.27 文和 Bunna<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1356 延文 Enbun<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1361 康安 Kôan<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1362 貞治 Jôji<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | 98. Chôkei 長慶1368-1383|| &nbsp; || 1368 応安 Ôan<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1370 建徳 Kentoku|| colspan = "2" | Go-En'yû 1371-1382<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1372 文中 Bunchû || colspan = "2" | &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1375 天授 Tenju|| &nbsp; || 1375 永和 Eiwa<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1379 康暦 Kôryaku<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1381 弘和 Kôwa(~1384)辛酉|| &nbsp; || 1381 永徳 Eitoku辛酉<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | 99. Go-Kameyama 1383-1392|| colspan = "2" | 100. Go-Komatsu 1382-1412<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1384 元中 Genchû (~1392)甲子|| &nbsp; || 1384 至徳 Shitoku甲子<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || (Genchû 9 became Meitoku 3 upon reunification) || &nbsp; || 1387 嘉慶 Kakei<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1389 康応 Kôô<br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;|| &nbsp; || 1390 明徳 Meitoku <br />
|-<br />
| colspan = "2" | 100. Go-Komatsu 1392-1412|| colspan = "2" | &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1392 明徳 Meitoku(~1394)as Meitoku 3<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp; || 1394 応永 Ôei|| &nbsp; || 1394 応永 Ôei<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|XXX||X||XXX||XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table 3===<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Shôkô称光||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1412<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôchô||正長||1428<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1428<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyô||永享||1429<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kakitsu||嘉吉||1441<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'an||文安||1444<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôtoku||宝徳||1449<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôtoku||享徳||1452<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôshô||康正||1455<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôroku||長禄||1457<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanshô||寛正||1460<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Tsuchimakado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1464<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunshô||文正||1466<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ônin||応仁||1467<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunmei||文明||1469<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyô||長享||1487<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Entoku||延徳||1489<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiô||明応||1492<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kashiwabara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1500<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunki||文亀||1501<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永正||1504<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiei||大永||1521<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1526<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôroku||享禄||1528<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenbun||天文||1532<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||弘治||1555<br />
|-<br />
|Ogimachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1557<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiroku||永禄||1558<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genki||元亀||1570<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô]||天承||1573<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1586<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunroku||文禄||1592<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keichô||慶長||1596<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Mizunoo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1611<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genna||元和||1615<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'ei||寛永||1624<br />
|-<br />
|Meishô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1629<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kômyô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1643<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôhô||正保||1644<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keian||慶安||1648<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||承応||1652<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sai||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1654<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meireki||明暦||1655<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manji||万治||1658<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanbun||寛文||1661<br />
|-<br />
|Reigen||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1663<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enpô||延宝||1673<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenna||天和||1681<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyô||貞享||1684<br />
|-<br />
|Higashiyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1687<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genroku||元禄||1688<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôei||宝永||1704<br />
|-<br />
|Nakamikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1709<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtoku||正徳||1711<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôhô||享保||1716<br />
|-<br />
|Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1735<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genbun||元文||1736<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpô||寛保||1741<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyô||延享||1744<br />
|-<br />
|Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1747<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'en||寛延||1748<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôreki||宝暦||1751<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1762<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiwa||明和||1764<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1770<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||An'ei||安永||1772<br />
|-<br />
|Kokaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1779<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenmei||天明||1781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kansei||寛政||1789<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôwa||享和||1801<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunka||文化||1804<br />
|-<br />
|Ninko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1817<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunsei||文政||1818<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpô||天保||1830<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôka||弘化||1844<br />
|-<br />
|Komei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1846<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaei||嘉永||1848<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ansei||安政||1854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Man'en||万延||1860<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunkyû||文久||1861<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genji||元治||1864<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiô||慶応||1865<br />
|-<br />
|Meiji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1868<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiji||明治||1868<br />
|-<br />
|Taisho||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1912<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taishô||大正||1912<br />
|-<br />
|Showa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1926<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||昭和||1926<br />
|-<br />
|Heisei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1989<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heisei||平成||1989<br />
|-<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/tokugawa/keizuKoushitsu.htm Imperial Genealogy (Japanese)]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Emperors]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Emperors_of_Japan&diff=21554Emperors of Japan2012-01-18T01:14:19Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Emperors and Eras */</p>
<hr />
<div>The succession of Emperors as described in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' and the ''[[Kojiki]]'' cannot be taken at face-value. Neither can the presented dates for those before reign of [[Emperor Kimmei]], who ruled from [[539]] to [[571]]<ref>Funke, Mark C. Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 49, No. 1. (Spring, 1994), page 11.</ref> be trusted. <br />
<br />
The following list has been divided up by eras, and most importantly by those that fall under the "mythological" or "historical" categories. [[Emperor Sujin]] is believed to have been the first "historical" Emperor (being the first Emperor to rule in the growing [[Yamato province|Yamato]] region) after the tribal confederacies that had held power previously--this does not mean, however, that he and those that followed did not have highly ficionalized lives.<br />
<br />
Recent scholarship has raised the possibility that Emperors [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] and [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]], and [[Empress Jingu|Empress Jing&ucirc;]] were completely ficticious characters<ref>Edwards, Walter. In Pursuit of Himiko. Postwar Archaeology and the Location of Yamatai. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 51, No. 1. (Spring, 1996), page 60n.</ref>. This assertion could very well apply to many other early Emperors, while others are most likely composite figures--an amalgamation of various important figures in early Japan. <br />
<br />
==Mythological==<br />
1. [[Emperor Jimmu|Jimmu]] 660 - 582 BC <br />
<br />
2. [[Emperor Suizei|Suizei]] 581 - 549 <br />
<br />
3. [[Emperor Annei|Annei]] 549 - 511<br />
<br />
4. [[Emperor Itoku|Itoku]] 510 - 476 <br />
<br />
5. [[Emperor Kosho|K&ocirc;sh&ocirc;]] 475 - 393 <br />
<br />
6. [[Emperor Koan|K&ocirc;an]] 392 - 291 <br />
<br />
7. [[Emperor Korei|K&ocirc;rei]] 290 - 215 <br />
<br />
8. [[Emperor Kogen|K&ocirc;gen]] 214 - 158 <br />
<br />
9. [[Emperor Kaika|Kaika]] 157 - 98<br />
<br />
==Historical==<br />
<br />
10. [[Emperor Sujin|Sujin]] 97-30 <br />
<br />
11. [[Emperor Suinin|Suinin]] 29 BC- 70 AD<br />
<br />
12. [[Emperor Keiko|Keiko]] 71 - 130 <br />
<br />
13. [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] 131 - 191 <br />
<br />
14. [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]] 192 - 200<br />
<br />
: [[Empress Jingu|Jing&ucirc;]] 209 - 269 (Regent) <br />
<br />
15. [[Emperor Ojin|&Ocirc;jin]] 270 - 310 <br />
<br />
16. [[Emperor Nintoku|Nintoku]] 313 - 399 <br />
<br />
17. [[Emperor Richu|Rich&ucirc;]] 400 - 405 <br />
<br />
18. [[Emperor Hanzei|Hanzei]] 406 - 410 <br />
<br />
19. [[Emperor Ingyo|Ingy&ocirc;]] 411 - 453 <br />
<br />
20. [[Emperor Anko|Ank&ocirc;]] 453 - 456 <br />
<br />
21. [[Emperor Yuryaku|Y&ucirc;ryaku]] 456 - 479 <br />
<br />
22. [[Emperor Seinei|Seinei]] 480 - 484 <br />
<br />
23. [[Emperor Kenzo|Kenso]] 485 - 487 <br />
<br />
24. [[Emperor Ninken|Ninken]] 488 - 498 <br />
<br />
25. [[Emperor Buretsu|Buretsu]] 498 - 506 <br />
<br />
26. [[Emperor Keitai|Keitai]] 507 - 531 <br />
<br />
27. [[Emperor Ankan|Ankan]] 531 - 536<br />
<br />
===Asuka Period 飛鳥時代===<br />
28. [[Emperor Senka|Senka]] 536 - 539 <br />
<br />
29. [[Emperor Kimmei|Kimmei]] 540 - 571 <br />
<br />
30. [[Emperor Bidatsu|Bidatsu]] 572 - 585 <br />
<br />
31. [[Emperor Yomei|Yomei]] 585 - 587 <br />
<br />
32. [[Emperor Sushun|Sushun]] 588 - 592 <br />
<br />
33. [[Empress Suiko|Suiko]] 593 - 628 <br />
<br />
34. [[Emperor Jomei|Jomei]] 629 - 641 <br />
<br />
35. [[Empress Kogyoku|Kogyoku (Saimei)]] 642 - 644 <br />
<br />
36. [[Emperor Kotoku|Kotoku (Taika)]] 645 - 654 <br />
<br />
37. [[Empress Saimei|Saimei]] 655 - 660 <br />
<br />
38. [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] 661 - 670 <br />
<br />
39. [[Emperor Kobun|Kobun]] 671 - 672 <br />
<br />
40. [[Emperor Temmu|Temmu]] 673 - 685 <br />
<br />
41. [[Empress Jito|Jito]] 686 - 696 <br />
<br />
42. [[Emperor Mommu|Mommu]] 697 - 706 <br />
<br />
===Nara Period 奈良時代===<br />
43. [[Gemmei]] 707-714 <br />
<br />
44. [[Gensho|Genshô]] (Yoro) 715-723 <br />
<br />
45. [[Shomu]] 724-749 <br />
<br />
46. [[Koken]] (Shotoku) 749-758 <br />
<br />
47. [[Junnin]] 758-763 <br />
<br />
48. [[Shotoku]] (Koken) 764-770 <br />
<br />
49. [[Konin]] 770-780<br />
<br />
===Heian Period 平安時代===<br />
50. [[Kammu]] 781-806 <br />
<br />
51. [[Heizei]] 806-809 <br />
<br />
52. [[Saga]] 809-823 <br />
<br />
53. [[Junna]] 823-833 <br />
<br />
54. [[Nimmyo]] 833-850 <br />
<br />
55. [[Montoku]] 850-858 <br />
<br />
56. [[Seiwa]] 858-876 <br />
<br />
57. [[Yozei]] 876-884 <br />
<br />
58. [[Koko]] 884-887 <br />
<br />
59. [[Uda]] 887-897 <br />
<br />
60. [[Daigo]] 897-930 <br />
<br />
61. [[Suzaku]] 930-946 <br />
<br />
62. [[Murakami]] 946-967 <br />
<br />
63. [[Reizei]] 967-969 <br />
<br />
64. [[Enyu]] 969-984 <br />
<br />
65. [[Kazan]] 984-986 <br />
<br />
66. [[Ichijo|Ichijô]] 986-1011 <br />
<br />
67. [[Sanjo]] 1011-1016 <br />
<br />
68. [[Go-Ichijo|Go-Ichijô]] 1016-1036 <br />
<br />
69. [[Go-Suzaku]] 1036-1045 <br />
<br />
70. [[Go-Reizei]] 1045-1068 <br />
<br />
71. [[Go-Sanjo]] 1068-1072 <br />
<br />
72. [[Shirakawa]] 1072-1086 <br />
<br />
73. [[Horikawa]] 1086-1107 <br />
<br />
74. [[Toba]] 1107-1123 <br />
<br />
75. [[Sutoku]] 1123-1141 <br />
<br />
76. [[Konoe]] 1141-1155 <br />
<br />
77. [[Go-Shirakawa]] 1155-1158 <br />
<br />
78. [[Nijo|Nijô]] 1158-1165 <br />
<br />
79. [[Rokujo|Rokujô]] 1165-1168 <br />
<br />
80. [[Takakura]] 1168-1180 <br />
<br />
81. [[Antoku]] 1180-1183<br />
<br />
===Kamakura Period 鎌倉時代===<br />
82. [[Go-Toba]] 1183-1198 <br />
<br />
83. [[Tsuchimikado]] 1198-1210 <br />
<br />
84. [[Juntoku]] 1201-1221 <br />
<br />
85. [[Chukyo]] 1221 <br />
<br />
86. [[Go-Horikawa]] 1221-1232 <br />
<br />
87. [[Shijo]] 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
88. [[Go-Saga]] 1242-1246 <br />
<br />
89. [[Go-Fukakusa]] 1246-1259 <br />
<br />
90. [[Kameyama]] 1259-1274 <br />
<br />
91. [[Go-Uda]] 1274-1287 <br />
<br />
92. [[Fushimi]] 1288-1298 <br />
<br />
93. [[Go-Fushimi]] 1298-1301 <br />
<br />
94. [[Go-Nijo|Go-Nijô]] 1301-1308 <br />
<br />
95. [[Hanazono]] 1308-1318<br />
<br />
===Muromachi Period 室町時代===<br />
96. [[Emperor Go-Daigo|Go-Daigo]] 1318-1339 <br />
<br />
97. Go-Murakami 1339-1367 <br />
<br />
98. Chokei 1368-1383 <br />
<br />
99. Go-Kameyama 1383-1392 <br />
<br />
====Northern Court====<br />
*Kôgon 1331-1333 <br />
*Kômyô 1336-1347 <br />
*Sukô 1348-1351 <br />
*Go-Kôgon 1352-1370 <br />
*Go-En'yû 1371-1372 <br />
<br />
<br />
100. Go-Komatsu 1392-1412 <br />
<br />
101. Shôkô 1412-1427 <br />
<br />
102. Go-Hanazono 1428-1463 <br />
<br />
103. Go-Tsuchimakado 1464-1499 <br />
<br />
104. Go-Kashiwabara 1500-1525 <br />
<br />
105. Go-Nara 1526-1556 <br />
<br />
106. [[Emperor Ogimachi|Ôgimachi]] 1557-1585 <br />
<br />
107. Go-Yôzei 1586-1610<br />
<br />
===Edo Period 江戸時代===<br />
108. Go-Mizunoo 1611-1629 <br />
<br />
109. Meishô 1629-1643 <br />
<br />
110. Go-Kômyô 1643-1653 <br />
<br />
111. Go-Sai 1654-1662 <br />
<br />
112. Reigen 1663-1686 <br />
<br />
113. Higashiyama 1687-1709 <br />
<br />
114. Nakamikado 1709-1735 <br />
<br />
115. Sakuramachi 1735-1746 <br />
<br />
116. Momozono 1747-1761 <br />
<br />
117. Go-Sakuramachi 1762-1770 <br />
<br />
118. Go-Momozono 1770-1778 <br />
<br />
119. Kokaku 1779-1816 <br />
<br />
120. Ninko 1817-1845 <br />
<br />
121. Komei 1846-1867<br />
<br />
===Meiji Period 明治時代===<br />
<br />
122. [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]] 1868-1912<br />
<br />
===Modern Era 現代===<br />
123. Taishô 1912 - 1926<br />
<br />
124. Shôwa 1926 - 1989<br />
<br />
125. Heisei 1989 - Present<br />
<br />
==Emperors and Eras==<br />
===Table 1===<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Kotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taika||大化||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hakuchi||白雉||650<br />
|-<br />
|Saimei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||655<br />
|-<br />
|Tenji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||661<br />
|-<br />
|Kobun||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||671<br />
|-<br />
|Temmu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||673<br />
|-<br />
|Jito||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||686<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shuchô||朱鳥||686<br />
|-<br />
|Mommu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||697<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taihô||大宝||701<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiun||慶雲||704<br />
|-<br />
|Gemmei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||707<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôrô||養老||708<br />
|-<br />
|Genshô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Reiki||霊亀||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||717<br />
|-<br />
|Shomu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jinki||神亀||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô||天平||729<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-kanpô||天平感宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|Koken||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-shôhô||天平勝宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-hôji||天平宝字||757<br />
|-<br />
|Junnin||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||758<br />
|-<br />
|Shotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||764<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-jingo||天平神護||765<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jingo-keiun||神護景雲||767<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôki||宝亀||770<br />
|-<br />
|Kammu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ô||天応||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enryaku||延暦||782<br />
|-<br />
|Heizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||806<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daidô||大同||806<br />
|-<br />
|Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||809<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kônin||弘仁||810<br />
|-<br />
|Junna||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||823<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenchô||天長||824<br />
|-<br />
|Nimmyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||833<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôwa||承和||834<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉祥||848<br />
|-<br />
|Montoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||850<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninju||仁寿||851<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Saikô||斉衡||854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennan||天安||857<br />
|-<br />
|Seiwa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||858<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgan||貞観||859<br />
|-<br />
|Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||876<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gangyô||元慶||877<br />
|-<br />
|Koko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||884<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninna||仁和||885<br />
|-<br />
|Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||887<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpyô||寛平||889<br />
|-<br />
|Daigo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||897<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtai||昌泰||898<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Engi||延喜||901<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enchô||延長||923<br />
|-<br />
|Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||930<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhei||承平||931<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengyô||天慶||938<br />
|-<br />
|Murakami||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||946<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô||天正||947<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'yô||天養||957<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôwa||応和||961<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhô||康保||964<br />
|-<br />
|Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||967<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Anna||安和||968<br />
|-<br />
|Enyu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||969<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenryaku||天暦||970<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'en||天延||973<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||貞元||976<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengen||天元||978<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikan||永観||983<br />
|-<br />
|Kazan||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||984<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanna||寛和||985<br />
|-<br />
|Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||986<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eien||永延||987<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiso||永祚||988<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôryaku||正暦||990<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôtoku||長徳||995<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôhô||長保||999<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kankô||寛弘||1004<br />
|-<br />
|Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1011<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôwa||長和||1012<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1016<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kannin||寛仁||1017<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jian||治安||1021<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manju||万寿||1024<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôgen||長元||1028<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1036<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôryaku||長暦||1037<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyû||長久||1040<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kantoku||寛徳||1044<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1045<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永承||1046<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengi||天喜||1053<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhei||康平||1058<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jiryaku||治暦||1065<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1068<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyû||延久||1069<br />
|-<br />
|Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1072<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhô||承保||1074<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôryaku||承暦||1077<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eihô||永保||1081<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôtoku||応徳||1084<br />
|-<br />
|Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1086<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanji||寛治||1087<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kahô||嘉保||1094<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eichô||永長||1096<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôtoku||承徳||1097<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôwa||康和||1099<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôji||長治||1104<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉承||1106<br />
|-<br />
|Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1107<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennin||天仁||1108<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ei||天永||1110<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyû||永久||1113<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gen'ei||元永||1118<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôan||保安||1120<br />
|-<br />
|Sutoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1123<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenji||天治||1124<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiji||大治||1126<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tentoku||天徳||1131<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôshô||長承||1132<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôen||保延||1135<br />
|-<br />
|Konoe||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiji||永治||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||康治||1142<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tokuji||徳治||1144<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûan||久安||1145<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninpei||仁平||1151<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûju||久寿||1154<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1155<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôgen||保元||1156<br />
|-<br />
|Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1158<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heiji||平治||1159<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiryaku||永暦||1160<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôhô||応保||1161<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkan||長寛||1163<br />
|-<br />
|Rokujô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiman||永万||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninnan||仁安||1166<br />
|-<br />
|Takakura||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1168<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaô||嘉応||1169<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôan||承安||1171<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Angen||安元||1175<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jishô||治承||1177<br />
|-<br />
|Antoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1180<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||1181<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Juei||寿永||1182<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1183<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genryaku||元暦||1184<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunji||文治||1185<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenkyû||建久||1190<br />
|-<br />
|Tsuchimikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1198<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôji||正治||1199<br />
|-<br />
|Juntoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kennin||建仁||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genkyû||元久||1204<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ken'ei||建永||1206<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||承元||1207<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenryaku||建暦||1211<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenpô]||建保||1213<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyû||承久||1219<br />
|-<br />
|Chukyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||貞応||1222<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gennin||元仁||1224<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Karoku||嘉禄||1225<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Antei||安貞||1227<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanki||寛喜||1229<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Shijo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôei||貞永||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpuku||天福||1233<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunryaku||文暦||1234<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Katei||嘉禎||1235<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ryakunin||暦仁||1238<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||En'ô||延応||1239<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninji||仁治||1240<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1242<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kangen||寛元||1243<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fukakusa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1246<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôji||宝治||1247<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenchô||建長||1249<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôgen||康元||1256<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôka||正嘉||1257<br />
|-<br />
|Kameyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôgen||正元||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ô||文応||1260<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôcho||弘長||1261<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ei||文永||1264<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1274<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenji||建治||1275<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôan||弘安||1278<br />
|-<br />
|Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôô||正応||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Einin||永仁||1293<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1298<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôan||正安||1299<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1301<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kengen||乾元||1302<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kagen||嘉元||1303<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Wadô||和銅||1306<br />
|-<br />
|Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkei||延慶||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôchô||応長||1311<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||正和||1312<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunpô||文保||1317<br />
|}<br />
===Table 2 (Nanboku)===<br />
'''Nanboku Court Period'''<br />
<br />
===Table 3===<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Shôkô称光||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1412<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôchô||正長||1428<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1428<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyô||永享||1429<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kakitsu||嘉吉||1441<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'an||文安||1444<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôtoku||宝徳||1449<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôtoku||享徳||1452<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôshô||康正||1455<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôroku||長禄||1457<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanshô||寛正||1460<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Tsuchimakado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1464<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunshô||文正||1466<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ônin||応仁||1467<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunmei||文明||1469<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyô||長享||1487<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Entoku||延徳||1489<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiô||明応||1492<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kashiwabara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1500<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunki||文亀||1501<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永正||1504<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiei||大永||1521<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1526<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôroku||享禄||1528<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenbun||天文||1532<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||弘治||1555<br />
|-<br />
|Ogimachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1557<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiroku||永禄||1558<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genki||元亀||1570<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô]||天承||1573<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1586<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunroku||文禄||1592<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keichô||慶長||1596<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Mizunoo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1611<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genna||元和||1615<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'ei||寛永||1624<br />
|-<br />
|Meishô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1629<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kômyô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1643<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôhô||正保||1644<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keian||慶安||1648<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||承応||1652<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sai||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1654<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meireki||明暦||1655<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manji||万治||1658<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanbun||寛文||1661<br />
|-<br />
|Reigen||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1663<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enpô||延宝||1673<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenna||天和||1681<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyô||貞享||1684<br />
|-<br />
|Higashiyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1687<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genroku||元禄||1688<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôei||宝永||1704<br />
|-<br />
|Nakamikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1709<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtoku||正徳||1711<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôhô||享保||1716<br />
|-<br />
|Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1735<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genbun||元文||1736<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpô||寛保||1741<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyô||延享||1744<br />
|-<br />
|Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1747<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'en||寛延||1748<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôreki||宝暦||1751<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1762<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiwa||明和||1764<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1770<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||An'ei||安永||1772<br />
|-<br />
|Kokaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1779<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenmei||天明||1781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kansei||寛政||1789<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôwa||享和||1801<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunka||文化||1804<br />
|-<br />
|Ninko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1817<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunsei||文政||1818<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpô||天保||1830<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôka||弘化||1844<br />
|-<br />
|Komei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1846<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaei||嘉永||1848<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ansei||安政||1854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Man'en||万延||1860<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunkyû||文久||1861<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genji||元治||1864<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiô||慶応||1865<br />
|-<br />
|Meiji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1868<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiji||明治||1868<br />
|-<br />
|Taisho||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1912<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taishô||大正||1912<br />
|-<br />
|Showa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1926<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||昭和||1926<br />
|-<br />
|Heisei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1989<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heisei||平成||1989<br />
|-<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/tokugawa/keizuKoushitsu.htm Imperial Genealogy (Japanese)]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Emperors]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Emperors_of_Japan&diff=20793Emperors of Japan2011-10-15T07:28:29Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Emperors and Eras */</p>
<hr />
<div>The succession of Emperors as described in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' and the ''[[Kojiki]]'' cannot be taken at face-value. Neither can the presented dates for those before reign of [[Emperor Kimmei]], who ruled from [[539]] to [[571]]<ref>Funke, Mark C. Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 49, No. 1. (Spring, 1994), page 11.</ref> be trusted. <br />
<br />
The following list has been divided up by eras, and most importantly by those that fall under the "mythological" or "historical" categories. [[Emperor Sujin]] is believed to have been the first "historical" Emperor (being the first Emperor to rule in the growing [[Yamato province|Yamato]] region) after the tribal confederacies that had held power previously--this does not mean, however, that he and those that followed did not have highly ficionalized lives.<br />
<br />
Recent scholarship has raised the possibility that Emperors [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] and [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]], and [[Empress Jingu|Empress Jing&ucirc;]] were completely ficticious characters<ref>Edwards, Walter. In Pursuit of Himiko. Postwar Archaeology and the Location of Yamatai. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 51, No. 1. (Spring, 1996), page 60n.</ref>. This assertion could very well apply to many other early Emperors, while others are most likely composite figures--an amalgamation of various important figures in early Japan. <br />
<br />
==Mythological==<br />
1. [[Emperor Jimmu|Jimmu]] 660 - 582 BC <br />
<br />
2. [[Emperor Suizei|Suizei]] 581 - 549 <br />
<br />
3. [[Emperor Annei|Annei]] 549 - 511<br />
<br />
4. [[Emperor Itoku|Itoku]] 510 - 476 <br />
<br />
5. [[Emperor Kosho|K&ocirc;sh&ocirc;]] 475 - 393 <br />
<br />
6. [[Emperor Koan|K&ocirc;an]] 392 - 291 <br />
<br />
7. [[Emperor Korei|K&ocirc;rei]] 290 - 215 <br />
<br />
8. [[Emperor Kogen|K&ocirc;gen]] 214 - 158 <br />
<br />
9. [[Emperor Kaika|Kaika]] 157 - 98<br />
<br />
==Historical==<br />
<br />
10. [[Emperor Sujin|Sujin]] 97-30 <br />
<br />
11. [[Emperor Suinin|Suinin]] 29 BC- 70 AD<br />
<br />
12. [[Emperor Keiko|Keiko]] 71 - 130 <br />
<br />
13. [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] 131 - 191 <br />
<br />
14. [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]] 192 - 200<br />
<br />
: [[Empress Jingu|Jing&ucirc;]] 209 - 269 (Regent) <br />
<br />
15. [[Emperor Ojin|&Ocirc;jin]] 270 - 310 <br />
<br />
16. [[Emperor Nintoku|Nintoku]] 313 - 399 <br />
<br />
17. [[Emperor Richu|Rich&ucirc;]] 400 - 405 <br />
<br />
18. [[Emperor Hanzei|Hanzei]] 406 - 410 <br />
<br />
19. [[Emperor Ingyo|Ingy&ocirc;]] 411 - 453 <br />
<br />
20. [[Emperor Anko|Ank&ocirc;]] 453 - 456 <br />
<br />
21. [[Emperor Yuryaku|Y&ucirc;ryaku]] 456 - 479 <br />
<br />
22. [[Emperor Seinei|Seinei]] 480 - 484 <br />
<br />
23. [[Emperor Kenso|Kenso]] 485 - 487 <br />
<br />
24. [[Emperor Ninken|Ninken]] 488 - 498 <br />
<br />
25. [[Emperor Buretsu|Buretsu]] 498 - 506 <br />
<br />
26. [[Emperor Keitai|Keitai]] 507 - 531 <br />
<br />
27. [[Emperor Ankan|Ankan]] 531 - 536<br />
<br />
===Asuka Period 飛鳥時代===<br />
28. [[Emperor Senka|Senka]] 536 - 539 <br />
<br />
29. [[Emperor Kimmei|Kimmei]] 540 - 571 <br />
<br />
30. [[Emperor Bidatsu|Bidatsu]] 572 - 585 <br />
<br />
31. [[Emperor Yomei|Yomei]] 585 - 587 <br />
<br />
32. [[Emperor Sushun|Sushun]] 588 - 592 <br />
<br />
33. [[Empress Suiko|Suiko]] 593 - 628 <br />
<br />
34. [[Emperor Jomei|Jomei]] 629 - 641 <br />
<br />
35. [[Empress Kogyoku|Kogyoku (Saimei)]] 642 - 644 <br />
<br />
36. [[Emperor Kotoku|Kotoku (Taika)]] 645 - 654 <br />
<br />
37. [[Empress Saimei|Saimei]] 655 - 660 <br />
<br />
38. [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] 661 - 670 <br />
<br />
39. [[Emperor Kobun|Kobun]] 671 - 672 <br />
<br />
40. [[Emperor Temmu|Temmu]] 673 - 685 <br />
<br />
41. [[Empress Jito|Jito]] 686 - 696 <br />
<br />
42. [[Emperor Mommu|Mommu]] 697 - 706 <br />
<br />
===Nara Period 奈良時代===<br />
43. Gemmei 707-714 <br />
<br />
44. Genshô(Yoro) 715-723 <br />
<br />
45. Shomu 724-749 <br />
<br />
46. Koken(Shotoku) 749-758 <br />
<br />
47. Junnin 758-763 <br />
<br />
48. Shotoku(Koken) 764-770 <br />
<br />
49. Konin 770-780 <br />
<br />
===Heian Period 平安時代===<br />
50. Kammu 781-806 <br />
<br />
51. Heizei 806-809 <br />
<br />
52. Saga 809-823 <br />
<br />
53. Junna 823-833 <br />
<br />
54. Nimmyo 833-850 <br />
<br />
55. Montoku 850-858 <br />
<br />
56. Seiwa 858-876 <br />
<br />
57. Yozei 876-884 <br />
<br />
58. Koko 884-887 <br />
<br />
59. Uda 887-897 <br />
<br />
60. Daigo 897-930 <br />
<br />
61. Suzaku 930-946 <br />
<br />
62. Murakami 946-967 <br />
<br />
63. Reizei 967-969 <br />
<br />
64. Enyu 969-984 <br />
<br />
65. Kazan 984-986 <br />
<br />
66. Ichijô 986-1011 <br />
<br />
67. Sanjo 1011-1016 <br />
<br />
68. Go-Ichijô 1016-1036 <br />
<br />
69. Go-Suzaku 1036-1045 <br />
<br />
70. Go-Reizei 1045-1068 <br />
<br />
71. Go-Sanjo 1068-1072 <br />
<br />
72. Shirakawa 1072-1086 <br />
<br />
73. Horikawa 1086-1107 <br />
<br />
74. Toba 1107-1123 <br />
<br />
75. Sutoku 1123-1141 <br />
<br />
76. Konoe 1141-1155 <br />
<br />
77. Go-Shirakawa 1155-1158 <br />
<br />
78. Nijô 1158-1165 <br />
<br />
79. Rokujô 1165-1168 <br />
<br />
80. Takakura 1168-1180 <br />
<br />
81. Antoku 1180-1183<br />
<br />
===Kamakura Period 鎌倉時代===<br />
82. Go-Toba 1183-1198 <br />
<br />
83. Tsuchimikado 1198-1210 <br />
<br />
84. Juntoku 1201-1221 <br />
<br />
85. Chukyo 1221 <br />
<br />
86. Go-Horikawa 1221-1232 <br />
<br />
87. Shijo 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
88. Go-Saga 1242-1246 <br />
<br />
89. Go-Fukakusa 1246-1259 <br />
<br />
90. Kameyama 1259-1274 <br />
<br />
91. Go-Uda 1274-1287 <br />
<br />
92. Fushimi 1288-1298 <br />
<br />
93. Go-Fushimi 1298-1301 <br />
<br />
94. Go-Nijô 1301-1308 <br />
<br />
95. Hanazono 1308-1318<br />
<br />
===Muromachi Period 室町時代===<br />
96. [[Emperor Go-Daigo|Go-Daigo]] 1318-1339 <br />
<br />
97. Go-Murakami 1339-1367 <br />
<br />
98. Chokei 1368-1383 <br />
<br />
99. Go-Kameyama 1383-1392 <br />
<br />
====Northern Court====<br />
*Kôgon 1331-1333 <br />
*Kômyô 1336-1347 <br />
*Sukô 1348-1351 <br />
*Go-Kôgon 1352-1370 <br />
*Go-En'yû 1371-1372 <br />
<br />
<br />
100. Go-Komatsu 1392-1412 <br />
<br />
101. Shôkô 1412-1427 <br />
<br />
102. Go-Hanazono 1428-1463 <br />
<br />
103. Go-Tsuchimakado 1464-1499 <br />
<br />
104. Go-Kashiwabara 1500-1525 <br />
<br />
105. Go-Nara 1526-1556 <br />
<br />
106. [[Emperor Ogimachi|Ôgimachi]] 1557-1585 <br />
<br />
107. Go-Yôzei 1586-1610<br />
<br />
===Edo Period 江戸時代===<br />
108. Go-Mizunoo 1611-1629 <br />
<br />
109. Meishô 1629-1643 <br />
<br />
110. Go-Kômyô 1643-1653 <br />
<br />
111. Go-Sai 1654-1662 <br />
<br />
112. Reigen 1663-1686 <br />
<br />
113. Higashiyama 1687-1709 <br />
<br />
114. Nakamikado 1709-1735 <br />
<br />
115. Sakuramachi 1735-1746 <br />
<br />
116. Momozono 1747-1761 <br />
<br />
117. Go-Sakuramachi 1762-1770 <br />
<br />
118. Go-Momozono 1770-1778 <br />
<br />
119. Kokaku 1779-1816 <br />
<br />
120. Ninko 1817-1845 <br />
<br />
121. Komei 1846-1867<br />
<br />
===Meiji Period 明治時代===<br />
<br />
122. [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]] 1868-1912<br />
<br />
===Modern Era 現代===<br />
123. Taishô 1912 - 1926<br />
<br />
124. Shôwa 1926 - 1989<br />
<br />
125. Heisei 1989 - Present<br />
<br />
==Emperors and Eras==<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Kotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taika||大化||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hakuchi||白雉||650<br />
|-<br />
|Saimei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||655<br />
|-<br />
|Tenji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||661<br />
|-<br />
|Kobun||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||671<br />
|-<br />
|Temmu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||673<br />
|-<br />
|Jito||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||686<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shuchô||朱鳥||686<br />
|-<br />
|Mommu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||697<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taihô||大宝||701<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiun||慶雲||704<br />
|-<br />
|Gemmei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||707<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôrô||養老||708<br />
|-<br />
|Genshô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Reiki||霊亀||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||717<br />
|-<br />
|Shomu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jinki||神亀||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô||天平||729<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-kanpô||天平感宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|Koken||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-shôhô||天平勝宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-hôji||天平宝字||757<br />
|-<br />
|Junnin||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||758<br />
|-<br />
|Shotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||764<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-jingo||天平神護||765<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jingo-keiun||神護景雲||767<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôki||宝亀||770<br />
|-<br />
|Kammu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ô||天応||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enryaku||延暦||782<br />
|-<br />
|Heizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||806<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daidô||大同||806<br />
|-<br />
|Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||809<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kônin||弘仁||810<br />
|-<br />
|Junna||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||823<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenchô||天長||824<br />
|-<br />
|Nimmyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||833<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôwa||承和||834<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉祥||848<br />
|-<br />
|Montoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||850<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninju||仁寿||851<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Saikô||斉衡||854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennan||天安||857<br />
|-<br />
|Seiwa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||858<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgan||貞観||859<br />
|-<br />
|Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||876<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gangyô||元慶||877<br />
|-<br />
|Koko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||884<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninna||仁和||885<br />
|-<br />
|Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||887<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpyô||寛平||889<br />
|-<br />
|Daigo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||897<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtai||昌泰||898<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Engi||延喜||901<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enchô||延長||923<br />
|-<br />
|Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||930<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhei||承平||931<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengyô||天慶||938<br />
|-<br />
|Murakami||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||946<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô||天正||947<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'yô||天養||957<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôwa||応和||961<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhô||康保||964<br />
|-<br />
|Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||967<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Anna||安和||968<br />
|-<br />
|Enyu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||969<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenryaku||天暦||970<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'en||天延||973<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||貞元||976<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengen||天元||978<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikan||永観||983<br />
|-<br />
|Kazan||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||984<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanna||寛和||985<br />
|-<br />
|Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||986<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eien||永延||987<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiso||永祚||988<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôryaku||正暦||990<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôtoku||長徳||995<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôhô||長保||999<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kankô||寛弘||1004<br />
|-<br />
|Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1011<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôwa||長和||1012<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1016<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kannin||寛仁||1017<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jian||治安||1021<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manju||万寿||1024<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôgen||長元||1028<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1036<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôryaku||長暦||1037<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyû||長久||1040<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kantoku||寛徳||1044<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1045<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永承||1046<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengi||天喜||1053<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhei||康平||1058<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jiryaku||治暦||1065<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1068<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyû||延久||1069<br />
|-<br />
|Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1072<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhô||承保||1074<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôryaku||承暦||1077<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eihô||永保||1081<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôtoku||応徳||1084<br />
|-<br />
|Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1086<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanji||寛治||1087<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kahô||嘉保||1094<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eichô||永長||1096<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôtoku||承徳||1097<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôwa||康和||1099<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôji||長治||1104<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉承||1106<br />
|-<br />
|Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1107<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennin||天仁||1108<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ei||天永||1110<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyû||永久||1113<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gen'ei||元永||1118<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôan||保安||1120<br />
|-<br />
|Sutoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1123<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenji||天治||1124<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiji||大治||1126<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tentoku||天徳||1131<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôshô||長承||1132<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôen||保延||1135<br />
|-<br />
|Konoe||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiji||永治||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||康治||1142<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tokuji||徳治||1144<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûan||久安||1145<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninpei||仁平||1151<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûju||久寿||1154<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1155<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôgen||保元||1156<br />
|-<br />
|Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1158<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heiji||平治||1159<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiryaku||永暦||1160<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôhô||応保||1161<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkan||長寛||1163<br />
|-<br />
|Rokujô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiman||永万||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninnan||仁安||1166<br />
|-<br />
|Takakura||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1168<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaô||嘉応||1169<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôan||承安||1171<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Angen||安元||1175<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jishô||治承||1177<br />
|-<br />
|Antoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1180<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||1181<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Juei||寿永||1182<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1183<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genryaku||元暦||1184<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunji||文治||1185<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenkyû||建久||1190<br />
|-<br />
|Tsuchimikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1198<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôji||正治||1199<br />
|-<br />
|Juntoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kennin||建仁||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genkyû||元久||1204<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ken'ei||建永||1206<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||承元||1207<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenryaku||建暦||1211<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenpô]||建保||1213<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyû||承久||1219<br />
|-<br />
|Chukyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||貞応||1222<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gennin||元仁||1224<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Karoku||嘉禄||1225<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Antei||安貞||1227<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanki||寛喜||1229<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|Shijo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôei||貞永||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpuku||天福||1233<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunryaku||文暦||1234<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Katei||嘉禎||1235<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ryakunin||暦仁||1238<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||En'ô||延応||1239<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninji||仁治||1240<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1242<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kangen||寛元||1243<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fukakusa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1246<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôji||宝治||1247<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenchô||建長||1249<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôgen||康元||1256<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôka||正嘉||1257<br />
|-<br />
|Kameyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôgen||正元||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ô||文応||1260<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôcho||弘長||1261<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ei||文永||1264<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1274<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenji||建治||1275<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôan||弘安||1278<br />
|-<br />
|Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôô||正応||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Einin||永仁||1293<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1298<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôan||正安||1299<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1301<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kengen||乾元||1302<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kagen||嘉元||1303<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Wadô||和銅||1306<br />
|-<br />
|Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkei||延慶||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôchô||応長||1311<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||正和||1312<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunpô||文保||1317<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="4" |'''Nanboku Court Period'''<br />
|-<br />
|Shoko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1412<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôchô||正長||1428<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1428<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyô||永享||1429<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kakitsu||嘉吉||1441<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'an||文安||1444<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôtoku||宝徳||1449<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôtoku||享徳||1452<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôshô||康正||1455<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôroku||長禄||1457<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanshô||寛正||1460<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Tsuchimakado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1464<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunshô||文正||1466<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ônin||応仁||1467<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunmei||文明||1469<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyô||長享||1487<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Entoku||延徳||1489<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiô||明応||1492<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kashiwabara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1500<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunki||文亀||1501<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永正||1504<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiei||大永||1521<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1526<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôroku||享禄||1528<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenbun||天文||1532<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||弘治||1555<br />
|-<br />
|Ogimachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1557<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiroku||永禄||1558<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genki||元亀||1570<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô]||天承||1573<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1586<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunroku||文禄||1592<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keichô||慶長||1596<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Mizunoo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1611<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genna||元和||1615<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'ei||寛永||1624<br />
|-<br />
|Meishô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1629<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kômyô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1643<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôhô||正保||1644<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keian||慶安||1648<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||承応||1652<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sai||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1654<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meireki||明暦||1655<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manji||万治||1658<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanbun||寛文||1661<br />
|-<br />
|Reigen||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1663<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enpô||延宝||1673<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenna||天和||1681<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyô||貞享||1684<br />
|-<br />
|Higashiyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1687<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genroku||元禄||1688<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôei||宝永||1704<br />
|-<br />
|Nakamikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1709<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtoku||正徳||1711<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôhô||享保||1716<br />
|-<br />
|Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1735<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genbun||元文||1736<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpô||寛保||1741<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyô||延享||1744<br />
|-<br />
|Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1747<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'en||寛延||1748<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôreki||宝暦||1751<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1762<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiwa||明和||1764<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1770<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||An'ei||安永||1772<br />
|-<br />
|Kokaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1779<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenmei||天明||1781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kansei||寛政||1789<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôwa||享和||1801<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunka||文化||1804<br />
|-<br />
|Ninko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1817<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunsei||文政||1818<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpô||天保||1830<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôka||弘化||1844<br />
|-<br />
|Komei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1846<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaei||嘉永||1848<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ansei||安政||1854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Man'en||万延||1860<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunkyû||文久||1861<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genji||元治||1864<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiô||慶応||1865<br />
|-<br />
|Meiji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1868<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiji||明治||1868<br />
|-<br />
|Taisho||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1912<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taishô||大正||1912<br />
|-<br />
|Showa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1926<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||昭和||1926<br />
|-<br />
|Heisei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1989<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heisei||平成||1989<br />
|-<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/tokugawa/keizuKoushitsu.htm Imperial Genealogy (Japanese)]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Emperors]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Emperors_of_Japan&diff=20792Emperors of Japan2011-10-15T07:25:03Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Kamakura Period 鎌倉時代 */</p>
<hr />
<div>The succession of Emperors as described in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' and the ''[[Kojiki]]'' cannot be taken at face-value. Neither can the presented dates for those before reign of [[Emperor Kimmei]], who ruled from [[539]] to [[571]]<ref>Funke, Mark C. Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 49, No. 1. (Spring, 1994), page 11.</ref> be trusted. <br />
<br />
The following list has been divided up by eras, and most importantly by those that fall under the "mythological" or "historical" categories. [[Emperor Sujin]] is believed to have been the first "historical" Emperor (being the first Emperor to rule in the growing [[Yamato province|Yamato]] region) after the tribal confederacies that had held power previously--this does not mean, however, that he and those that followed did not have highly ficionalized lives.<br />
<br />
Recent scholarship has raised the possibility that Emperors [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] and [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]], and [[Empress Jingu|Empress Jing&ucirc;]] were completely ficticious characters<ref>Edwards, Walter. In Pursuit of Himiko. Postwar Archaeology and the Location of Yamatai. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 51, No. 1. (Spring, 1996), page 60n.</ref>. This assertion could very well apply to many other early Emperors, while others are most likely composite figures--an amalgamation of various important figures in early Japan. <br />
<br />
==Mythological==<br />
1. [[Emperor Jimmu|Jimmu]] 660 - 582 BC <br />
<br />
2. [[Emperor Suizei|Suizei]] 581 - 549 <br />
<br />
3. [[Emperor Annei|Annei]] 549 - 511<br />
<br />
4. [[Emperor Itoku|Itoku]] 510 - 476 <br />
<br />
5. [[Emperor Kosho|K&ocirc;sh&ocirc;]] 475 - 393 <br />
<br />
6. [[Emperor Koan|K&ocirc;an]] 392 - 291 <br />
<br />
7. [[Emperor Korei|K&ocirc;rei]] 290 - 215 <br />
<br />
8. [[Emperor Kogen|K&ocirc;gen]] 214 - 158 <br />
<br />
9. [[Emperor Kaika|Kaika]] 157 - 98<br />
<br />
==Historical==<br />
<br />
10. [[Emperor Sujin|Sujin]] 97-30 <br />
<br />
11. [[Emperor Suinin|Suinin]] 29 BC- 70 AD<br />
<br />
12. [[Emperor Keiko|Keiko]] 71 - 130 <br />
<br />
13. [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] 131 - 191 <br />
<br />
14. [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]] 192 - 200<br />
<br />
: [[Empress Jingu|Jing&ucirc;]] 209 - 269 (Regent) <br />
<br />
15. [[Emperor Ojin|&Ocirc;jin]] 270 - 310 <br />
<br />
16. [[Emperor Nintoku|Nintoku]] 313 - 399 <br />
<br />
17. [[Emperor Richu|Rich&ucirc;]] 400 - 405 <br />
<br />
18. [[Emperor Hanzei|Hanzei]] 406 - 410 <br />
<br />
19. [[Emperor Ingyo|Ingy&ocirc;]] 411 - 453 <br />
<br />
20. [[Emperor Anko|Ank&ocirc;]] 453 - 456 <br />
<br />
21. [[Emperor Yuryaku|Y&ucirc;ryaku]] 456 - 479 <br />
<br />
22. [[Emperor Seinei|Seinei]] 480 - 484 <br />
<br />
23. [[Emperor Kenso|Kenso]] 485 - 487 <br />
<br />
24. [[Emperor Ninken|Ninken]] 488 - 498 <br />
<br />
25. [[Emperor Buretsu|Buretsu]] 498 - 506 <br />
<br />
26. [[Emperor Keitai|Keitai]] 507 - 531 <br />
<br />
27. [[Emperor Ankan|Ankan]] 531 - 536<br />
<br />
===Asuka Period 飛鳥時代===<br />
28. [[Emperor Senka|Senka]] 536 - 539 <br />
<br />
29. [[Emperor Kimmei|Kimmei]] 540 - 571 <br />
<br />
30. [[Emperor Bidatsu|Bidatsu]] 572 - 585 <br />
<br />
31. [[Emperor Yomei|Yomei]] 585 - 587 <br />
<br />
32. [[Emperor Sushun|Sushun]] 588 - 592 <br />
<br />
33. [[Empress Suiko|Suiko]] 593 - 628 <br />
<br />
34. [[Emperor Jomei|Jomei]] 629 - 641 <br />
<br />
35. [[Empress Kogyoku|Kogyoku (Saimei)]] 642 - 644 <br />
<br />
36. [[Emperor Kotoku|Kotoku (Taika)]] 645 - 654 <br />
<br />
37. [[Empress Saimei|Saimei]] 655 - 660 <br />
<br />
38. [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] 661 - 670 <br />
<br />
39. [[Emperor Kobun|Kobun]] 671 - 672 <br />
<br />
40. [[Emperor Temmu|Temmu]] 673 - 685 <br />
<br />
41. [[Empress Jito|Jito]] 686 - 696 <br />
<br />
42. [[Emperor Mommu|Mommu]] 697 - 706 <br />
<br />
===Nara Period 奈良時代===<br />
43. Gemmei 707-714 <br />
<br />
44. Genshô(Yoro) 715-723 <br />
<br />
45. Shomu 724-749 <br />
<br />
46. Koken(Shotoku) 749-758 <br />
<br />
47. Junnin 758-763 <br />
<br />
48. Shotoku(Koken) 764-770 <br />
<br />
49. Konin 770-780 <br />
<br />
===Heian Period 平安時代===<br />
50. Kammu 781-806 <br />
<br />
51. Heizei 806-809 <br />
<br />
52. Saga 809-823 <br />
<br />
53. Junna 823-833 <br />
<br />
54. Nimmyo 833-850 <br />
<br />
55. Montoku 850-858 <br />
<br />
56. Seiwa 858-876 <br />
<br />
57. Yozei 876-884 <br />
<br />
58. Koko 884-887 <br />
<br />
59. Uda 887-897 <br />
<br />
60. Daigo 897-930 <br />
<br />
61. Suzaku 930-946 <br />
<br />
62. Murakami 946-967 <br />
<br />
63. Reizei 967-969 <br />
<br />
64. Enyu 969-984 <br />
<br />
65. Kazan 984-986 <br />
<br />
66. Ichijô 986-1011 <br />
<br />
67. Sanjo 1011-1016 <br />
<br />
68. Go-Ichijô 1016-1036 <br />
<br />
69. Go-Suzaku 1036-1045 <br />
<br />
70. Go-Reizei 1045-1068 <br />
<br />
71. Go-Sanjo 1068-1072 <br />
<br />
72. Shirakawa 1072-1086 <br />
<br />
73. Horikawa 1086-1107 <br />
<br />
74. Toba 1107-1123 <br />
<br />
75. Sutoku 1123-1141 <br />
<br />
76. Konoe 1141-1155 <br />
<br />
77. Go-Shirakawa 1155-1158 <br />
<br />
78. Nijô 1158-1165 <br />
<br />
79. Rokujô 1165-1168 <br />
<br />
80. Takakura 1168-1180 <br />
<br />
81. Antoku 1180-1183<br />
<br />
===Kamakura Period 鎌倉時代===<br />
82. Go-Toba 1183-1198 <br />
<br />
83. Tsuchimikado 1198-1210 <br />
<br />
84. Juntoku 1201-1221 <br />
<br />
85. Chukyo 1221 <br />
<br />
86. Go-Horikawa 1221-1232 <br />
<br />
87. Shijo 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
88. Go-Saga 1242-1246 <br />
<br />
89. Go-Fukakusa 1246-1259 <br />
<br />
90. Kameyama 1259-1274 <br />
<br />
91. Go-Uda 1274-1287 <br />
<br />
92. Fushimi 1288-1298 <br />
<br />
93. Go-Fushimi 1298-1301 <br />
<br />
94. Go-Nijô 1301-1308 <br />
<br />
95. Hanazono 1308-1318<br />
<br />
===Muromachi Period 室町時代===<br />
96. [[Emperor Go-Daigo|Go-Daigo]] 1318-1339 <br />
<br />
97. Go-Murakami 1339-1367 <br />
<br />
98. Chokei 1368-1383 <br />
<br />
99. Go-Kameyama 1383-1392 <br />
<br />
====Northern Court====<br />
*Kôgon 1331-1333 <br />
*Kômyô 1336-1347 <br />
*Sukô 1348-1351 <br />
*Go-Kôgon 1352-1370 <br />
*Go-En'yû 1371-1372 <br />
<br />
<br />
100. Go-Komatsu 1392-1412 <br />
<br />
101. Shôkô 1412-1427 <br />
<br />
102. Go-Hanazono 1428-1463 <br />
<br />
103. Go-Tsuchimakado 1464-1499 <br />
<br />
104. Go-Kashiwabara 1500-1525 <br />
<br />
105. Go-Nara 1526-1556 <br />
<br />
106. [[Emperor Ogimachi|Ôgimachi]] 1557-1585 <br />
<br />
107. Go-Yôzei 1586-1610<br />
<br />
===Edo Period 江戸時代===<br />
108. Go-Mizunoo 1611-1629 <br />
<br />
109. Meishô 1629-1643 <br />
<br />
110. Go-Kômyô 1643-1653 <br />
<br />
111. Go-Sai 1654-1662 <br />
<br />
112. Reigen 1663-1686 <br />
<br />
113. Higashiyama 1687-1709 <br />
<br />
114. Nakamikado 1709-1735 <br />
<br />
115. Sakuramachi 1735-1746 <br />
<br />
116. Momozono 1747-1761 <br />
<br />
117. Go-Sakuramachi 1762-1770 <br />
<br />
118. Go-Momozono 1770-1778 <br />
<br />
119. Kokaku 1779-1816 <br />
<br />
120. Ninko 1817-1845 <br />
<br />
121. Komei 1846-1867<br />
<br />
===Meiji Period 明治時代===<br />
<br />
122. [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]] 1868-1912<br />
<br />
===Modern Era 現代===<br />
123. Taishô 1912 - 1926<br />
<br />
124. Shôwa 1926 - 1989<br />
<br />
125. Heisei 1989 - Present<br />
<br />
==Emperors and Eras==<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Kotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taika||大化||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hakuchi||白雉||650<br />
|-<br />
|Saimei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||655<br />
|-<br />
|Tenji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||661<br />
|-<br />
|Kobun||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||671<br />
|-<br />
|Temmu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||673<br />
|-<br />
|Jito||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||686<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shuchô||朱鳥||686<br />
|-<br />
|Mommu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||697<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taihô||大宝||701<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiun||慶雲||704<br />
|-<br />
|Gemmei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||707<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôrô||養老||708<br />
|-<br />
|Genshô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Reiki||霊亀||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||717<br />
|-<br />
|Shomu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jinki||神亀||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô||天平||729<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-kanpô||天平感宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|Koken||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-shôhô||天平勝宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-hôji||天平宝字||757<br />
|-<br />
|Junnin||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||758<br />
|-<br />
|Shotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||764<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-jingo||天平神護||765<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jingo-keiun||神護景雲||767<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôki||宝亀||770<br />
|-<br />
|Kammu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ô||天応||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enryaku||延暦||782<br />
|-<br />
|Heizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||806<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daidô||大同||806<br />
|-<br />
|Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||809<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kônin||弘仁||810<br />
|-<br />
|Junna||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||823<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenchô||天長||824<br />
|-<br />
|Nimmyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||833<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôwa||承和||834<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉祥||848<br />
|-<br />
|Montoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||850<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninju||仁寿||851<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Saikô||斉衡||854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennan||天安||857<br />
|-<br />
|Seiwa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||858<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgan||貞観||859<br />
|-<br />
|Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||876<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gangyô||元慶||877<br />
|-<br />
|Koko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||884<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninna||仁和||885<br />
|-<br />
|Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||887<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpyô||寛平||889<br />
|-<br />
|Daigo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||897<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtai||昌泰||898<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Engi||延喜||901<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enchô||延長||923<br />
|-<br />
|Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||930<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhei||承平||931<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengyô||天慶||938<br />
|-<br />
|Murakami||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||946<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô||天正||947<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'yô||天養||957<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôwa||応和||961<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhô||康保||964<br />
|-<br />
|Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||967<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Anna||安和||968<br />
|-<br />
|Enyu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||969<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenryaku||天暦||970<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'en||天延||973<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||貞元||976<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengen||天元||978<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikan||永観||983<br />
|-<br />
|Kazan||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||984<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanna||寛和||985<br />
|-<br />
|Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||986<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eien||永延||987<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiso||永祚||988<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôryaku||正暦||990<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôtoku||長徳||995<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôhô||長保||999<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kankô||寛弘||1004<br />
|-<br />
|Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1011<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôwa||長和||1012<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1016<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kannin||寛仁||1017<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jian||治安||1021<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manju||万寿||1024<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôgen||長元||1028<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1036<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôryaku||長暦||1037<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyû||長久||1040<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kantoku||寛徳||1044<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1045<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永承||1046<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengi||天喜||1053<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhei||康平||1058<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jiryaku||治暦||1065<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1068<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyû||延久||1069<br />
|-<br />
|Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1072<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhô||承保||1074<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôryaku||承暦||1077<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eihô||永保||1081<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôtoku||応徳||1084<br />
|-<br />
|Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1086<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanji||寛治||1087<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kahô||嘉保||1094<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eichô||永長||1096<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôtoku||承徳||1097<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôwa||康和||1099<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôji||長治||1104<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉承||1106<br />
|-<br />
|Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1107<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennin||天仁||1108<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ei||天永||1110<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyû||永久||1113<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gen'ei||元永||1118<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôan||保安||1120<br />
|-<br />
|Sutoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1123<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenji||天治||1124<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiji||大治||1126<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tentoku||天徳||1131<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôshô||長承||1132<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôen||保延||1135<br />
|-<br />
|Konoe||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiji||永治||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||康治||1142<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tokuji||徳治||1144<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûan||久安||1145<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninpei||仁平||1151<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûju||久寿||1154<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1155<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôgen||保元||1156<br />
|-<br />
|Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1158<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heiji||平治||1159<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiryaku||永暦||1160<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôhô||応保||1161<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkan||長寛||1163<br />
|-<br />
|Rokujô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiman||永万||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninnan||仁安||1166<br />
|-<br />
|Takakura||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1168<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaô||嘉応||1169<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôan||承安||1171<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Angen||安元||1175<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jishô||治承||1177<br />
|-<br />
|Antoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1180<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||1181<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Juei||寿永||1182<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1183<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genryaku||元暦||1184<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunji||文治||1185<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenkyû||建久||1190<br />
|-<br />
|Tsuchimikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1198<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôji||正治||1199<br />
|-<br />
|Juntoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kennin||建仁||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genkyû||元久||1204<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ken'ei||建永||1206<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||承元||1207<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenryaku||建暦||1211<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenpô]||建保||1213<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyû||承久||1219<br />
|-<br />
|Chukyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||貞応||1222<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gennin||元仁||1224<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Karoku||嘉禄||1225<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Antei||安貞||1227<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanki||寛喜||1229<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|Shijo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôei||貞永||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpuku||天福||1233<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunryaku||文暦||1234<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Katei||嘉禎||1235<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ryakunin||暦仁||1238<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||En'ô||延応||1239<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninji||仁治||1240<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kangen||寛元||1243<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fukakusa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1246<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôji||宝治||1247<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenchô||建長||1249<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôgen||康元||1256<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôka||正嘉||1257<br />
|-<br />
|Kameyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôgen||正元||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ô||文応||1260<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôcho||弘長||1261<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ei||文永||1264<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1274<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenji||建治||1275<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôan||弘安||1278<br />
|-<br />
|Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôô||正応||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Einin||永仁||1293<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1298<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôan||正安||1299<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1301<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kengen||乾元||1302<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kagen||嘉元||1303<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Wadô||和銅||1306<br />
|-<br />
|Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkei||延慶||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôchô||応長||1311<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||正和||1312<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunpô||文保||1317<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="4" |'''Nanboku Court Period'''<br />
|-<br />
|Shoko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1412<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôchô||正長||1428<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1428<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyô||永享||1429<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kakitsu||嘉吉||1441<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'an||文安||1444<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôtoku||宝徳||1449<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôtoku||享徳||1452<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôshô||康正||1455<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôroku||長禄||1457<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanshô||寛正||1460<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Tsuchimakado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1464<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunshô||文正||1466<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ônin||応仁||1467<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunmei||文明||1469<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyô||長享||1487<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Entoku||延徳||1489<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiô||明応||1492<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kashiwabara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1500<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunki||文亀||1501<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永正||1504<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiei||大永||1521<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1526<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôroku||享禄||1528<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenbun||天文||1532<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||弘治||1555<br />
|-<br />
|Ogimachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1557<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiroku||永禄||1558<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genki||元亀||1570<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô]||天承||1573<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1586<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunroku||文禄||1592<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keichô||慶長||1596<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Mizunoo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1611<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genna||元和||1615<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'ei||寛永||1624<br />
|-<br />
|Meishô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1629<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kômyô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1643<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôhô||正保||1644<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keian||慶安||1648<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||承応||1652<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sai||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1654<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meireki||明暦||1655<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manji||万治||1658<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanbun||寛文||1661<br />
|-<br />
|Reigen||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1663<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enpô||延宝||1673<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenna||天和||1681<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyô||貞享||1684<br />
|-<br />
|Higashiyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1687<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genroku||元禄||1688<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôei||宝永||1704<br />
|-<br />
|Nakamikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1709<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtoku||正徳||1711<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôhô||享保||1716<br />
|-<br />
|Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1735<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genbun||元文||1736<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpô||寛保||1741<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyô||延享||1744<br />
|-<br />
|Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1747<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'en||寛延||1748<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôreki||宝暦||1751<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1762<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiwa||明和||1764<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1770<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||An'ei||安永||1772<br />
|-<br />
|Kokaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1779<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenmei||天明||1781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kansei||寛政||1789<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôwa||享和||1801<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunka||文化||1804<br />
|-<br />
|Ninko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1817<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunsei||文政||1818<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpô||天保||1830<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôka||弘化||1844<br />
|-<br />
|Komei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1846<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaei||嘉永||1848<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ansei||安政||1854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Man'en||万延||1860<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunkyû||文久||1861<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genji||元治||1864<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiô||慶応||1865<br />
|-<br />
|Meiji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1868<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiji||明治||1868<br />
|-<br />
|Taisho||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1912<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taishô||大正||1912<br />
|-<br />
|Showa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1926<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||昭和||1926<br />
|-<br />
|Heisei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1989<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heisei||平成||1989<br />
|-<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/tokugawa/keizuKoushitsu.htm Imperial Genealogy (Japanese)]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Emperors]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Emperors_of_Japan&diff=20791Emperors of Japan2011-10-15T07:13:04Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Emperors and Eras */</p>
<hr />
<div>The succession of Emperors as described in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' and the ''[[Kojiki]]'' cannot be taken at face-value. Neither can the presented dates for those before reign of [[Emperor Kimmei]], who ruled from [[539]] to [[571]]<ref>Funke, Mark C. Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 49, No. 1. (Spring, 1994), page 11.</ref> be trusted. <br />
<br />
The following list has been divided up by eras, and most importantly by those that fall under the "mythological" or "historical" categories. [[Emperor Sujin]] is believed to have been the first "historical" Emperor (being the first Emperor to rule in the growing [[Yamato province|Yamato]] region) after the tribal confederacies that had held power previously--this does not mean, however, that he and those that followed did not have highly ficionalized lives.<br />
<br />
Recent scholarship has raised the possibility that Emperors [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] and [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]], and [[Empress Jingu|Empress Jing&ucirc;]] were completely ficticious characters<ref>Edwards, Walter. In Pursuit of Himiko. Postwar Archaeology and the Location of Yamatai. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 51, No. 1. (Spring, 1996), page 60n.</ref>. This assertion could very well apply to many other early Emperors, while others are most likely composite figures--an amalgamation of various important figures in early Japan. <br />
<br />
==Mythological==<br />
1. [[Emperor Jimmu|Jimmu]] 660 - 582 BC <br />
<br />
2. [[Emperor Suizei|Suizei]] 581 - 549 <br />
<br />
3. [[Emperor Annei|Annei]] 549 - 511<br />
<br />
4. [[Emperor Itoku|Itoku]] 510 - 476 <br />
<br />
5. [[Emperor Kosho|K&ocirc;sh&ocirc;]] 475 - 393 <br />
<br />
6. [[Emperor Koan|K&ocirc;an]] 392 - 291 <br />
<br />
7. [[Emperor Korei|K&ocirc;rei]] 290 - 215 <br />
<br />
8. [[Emperor Kogen|K&ocirc;gen]] 214 - 158 <br />
<br />
9. [[Emperor Kaika|Kaika]] 157 - 98<br />
<br />
==Historical==<br />
<br />
10. [[Emperor Sujin|Sujin]] 97-30 <br />
<br />
11. [[Emperor Suinin|Suinin]] 29 BC- 70 AD<br />
<br />
12. [[Emperor Keiko|Keiko]] 71 - 130 <br />
<br />
13. [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] 131 - 191 <br />
<br />
14. [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]] 192 - 200<br />
<br />
: [[Empress Jingu|Jing&ucirc;]] 209 - 269 (Regent) <br />
<br />
15. [[Emperor Ojin|&Ocirc;jin]] 270 - 310 <br />
<br />
16. [[Emperor Nintoku|Nintoku]] 313 - 399 <br />
<br />
17. [[Emperor Richu|Rich&ucirc;]] 400 - 405 <br />
<br />
18. [[Emperor Hanzei|Hanzei]] 406 - 410 <br />
<br />
19. [[Emperor Ingyo|Ingy&ocirc;]] 411 - 453 <br />
<br />
20. [[Emperor Anko|Ank&ocirc;]] 453 - 456 <br />
<br />
21. [[Emperor Yuryaku|Y&ucirc;ryaku]] 456 - 479 <br />
<br />
22. [[Emperor Seinei|Seinei]] 480 - 484 <br />
<br />
23. [[Emperor Kenso|Kenso]] 485 - 487 <br />
<br />
24. [[Emperor Ninken|Ninken]] 488 - 498 <br />
<br />
25. [[Emperor Buretsu|Buretsu]] 498 - 506 <br />
<br />
26. [[Emperor Keitai|Keitai]] 507 - 531 <br />
<br />
27. [[Emperor Ankan|Ankan]] 531 - 536<br />
<br />
===Asuka Period 飛鳥時代===<br />
28. [[Emperor Senka|Senka]] 536 - 539 <br />
<br />
29. [[Emperor Kimmei|Kimmei]] 540 - 571 <br />
<br />
30. [[Emperor Bidatsu|Bidatsu]] 572 - 585 <br />
<br />
31. [[Emperor Yomei|Yomei]] 585 - 587 <br />
<br />
32. [[Emperor Sushun|Sushun]] 588 - 592 <br />
<br />
33. [[Empress Suiko|Suiko]] 593 - 628 <br />
<br />
34. [[Emperor Jomei|Jomei]] 629 - 641 <br />
<br />
35. [[Empress Kogyoku|Kogyoku (Saimei)]] 642 - 644 <br />
<br />
36. [[Emperor Kotoku|Kotoku (Taika)]] 645 - 654 <br />
<br />
37. [[Empress Saimei|Saimei]] 655 - 660 <br />
<br />
38. [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] 661 - 670 <br />
<br />
39. [[Emperor Kobun|Kobun]] 671 - 672 <br />
<br />
40. [[Emperor Temmu|Temmu]] 673 - 685 <br />
<br />
41. [[Empress Jito|Jito]] 686 - 696 <br />
<br />
42. [[Emperor Mommu|Mommu]] 697 - 706 <br />
<br />
===Nara Period 奈良時代===<br />
43. Gemmei 707-714 <br />
<br />
44. Genshô(Yoro) 715-723 <br />
<br />
45. Shomu 724-749 <br />
<br />
46. Koken(Shotoku) 749-758 <br />
<br />
47. Junnin 758-763 <br />
<br />
48. Shotoku(Koken) 764-770 <br />
<br />
49. Konin 770-780 <br />
<br />
===Heian Period 平安時代===<br />
50. Kammu 781-806 <br />
<br />
51. Heizei 806-809 <br />
<br />
52. Saga 809-823 <br />
<br />
53. Junna 823-833 <br />
<br />
54. Nimmyo 833-850 <br />
<br />
55. Montoku 850-858 <br />
<br />
56. Seiwa 858-876 <br />
<br />
57. Yozei 876-884 <br />
<br />
58. Koko 884-887 <br />
<br />
59. Uda 887-897 <br />
<br />
60. Daigo 897-930 <br />
<br />
61. Suzaku 930-946 <br />
<br />
62. Murakami 946-967 <br />
<br />
63. Reizei 967-969 <br />
<br />
64. Enyu 969-984 <br />
<br />
65. Kazan 984-986 <br />
<br />
66. Ichijô 986-1011 <br />
<br />
67. Sanjo 1011-1016 <br />
<br />
68. Go-Ichijô 1016-1036 <br />
<br />
69. Go-Suzaku 1036-1045 <br />
<br />
70. Go-Reizei 1045-1068 <br />
<br />
71. Go-Sanjo 1068-1072 <br />
<br />
72. Shirakawa 1072-1086 <br />
<br />
73. Horikawa 1086-1107 <br />
<br />
74. Toba 1107-1123 <br />
<br />
75. Sutoku 1123-1141 <br />
<br />
76. Konoe 1141-1155 <br />
<br />
77. Go-Shirakawa 1155-1158 <br />
<br />
78. Nijô 1158-1165 <br />
<br />
79. Rokujô 1165-1168 <br />
<br />
80. Takakura 1168-1180 <br />
<br />
81. Antoku 1180-1183<br />
<br />
===Kamakura Period 鎌倉時代===<br />
82. Go-Toba 1183-1198 <br />
<br />
83. Tsuchimikado 1198-1210 <br />
<br />
84. Juntoku 1201-1221 <br />
<br />
85. Chukyo 1221 <br />
<br />
86. Go-Horikawa 1221-1232 <br />
<br />
87. Shijo 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
88. Go-Saga 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
89. Go-Fukakusa 1246-1259 <br />
<br />
90. Kameyama 1259-1274 <br />
<br />
91. Go-Uda 1274-1287 <br />
<br />
92. Fushimi 1288-1298 <br />
<br />
93. Go-Fushimi 1298-1301 <br />
<br />
94. Go-Nijô 1301-1308 <br />
<br />
95. Hanazono 1308-1318 <br />
<br />
===Muromachi Period 室町時代===<br />
96. [[Emperor Go-Daigo|Go-Daigo]] 1318-1339 <br />
<br />
97. Go-Murakami 1339-1367 <br />
<br />
98. Chokei 1368-1383 <br />
<br />
99. Go-Kameyama 1383-1392 <br />
<br />
====Northern Court====<br />
*Kôgon 1331-1333 <br />
*Kômyô 1336-1347 <br />
*Sukô 1348-1351 <br />
*Go-Kôgon 1352-1370 <br />
*Go-En'yû 1371-1372 <br />
<br />
<br />
100. Go-Komatsu 1392-1412 <br />
<br />
101. Shôkô 1412-1427 <br />
<br />
102. Go-Hanazono 1428-1463 <br />
<br />
103. Go-Tsuchimakado 1464-1499 <br />
<br />
104. Go-Kashiwabara 1500-1525 <br />
<br />
105. Go-Nara 1526-1556 <br />
<br />
106. [[Emperor Ogimachi|Ôgimachi]] 1557-1585 <br />
<br />
107. Go-Yôzei 1586-1610<br />
<br />
===Edo Period 江戸時代===<br />
108. Go-Mizunoo 1611-1629 <br />
<br />
109. Meishô 1629-1643 <br />
<br />
110. Go-Kômyô 1643-1653 <br />
<br />
111. Go-Sai 1654-1662 <br />
<br />
112. Reigen 1663-1686 <br />
<br />
113. Higashiyama 1687-1709 <br />
<br />
114. Nakamikado 1709-1735 <br />
<br />
115. Sakuramachi 1735-1746 <br />
<br />
116. Momozono 1747-1761 <br />
<br />
117. Go-Sakuramachi 1762-1770 <br />
<br />
118. Go-Momozono 1770-1778 <br />
<br />
119. Kokaku 1779-1816 <br />
<br />
120. Ninko 1817-1845 <br />
<br />
121. Komei 1846-1867<br />
<br />
===Meiji Period 明治時代===<br />
<br />
122. [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]] 1868-1912<br />
<br />
===Modern Era 現代===<br />
123. Taishô 1912 - 1926<br />
<br />
124. Shôwa 1926 - 1989<br />
<br />
125. Heisei 1989 - Present<br />
<br />
==Emperors and Eras==<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Kotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taika||大化||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hakuchi||白雉||650<br />
|-<br />
|Saimei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||655<br />
|-<br />
|Tenji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||661<br />
|-<br />
|Kobun||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||671<br />
|-<br />
|Temmu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||673<br />
|-<br />
|Jito||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||686<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shuchô||朱鳥||686<br />
|-<br />
|Mommu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||697<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taihô||大宝||701<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiun||慶雲||704<br />
|-<br />
|Gemmei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||707<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôrô||養老||708<br />
|-<br />
|Genshô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Reiki||霊亀||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||717<br />
|-<br />
|Shomu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jinki||神亀||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô||天平||729<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-kanpô||天平感宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|Koken||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-shôhô||天平勝宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-hôji||天平宝字||757<br />
|-<br />
|Junnin||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||758<br />
|-<br />
|Shotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||764<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-jingo||天平神護||765<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jingo-keiun||神護景雲||767<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôki||宝亀||770<br />
|-<br />
|Kammu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ô||天応||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enryaku||延暦||782<br />
|-<br />
|Heizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||806<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daidô||大同||806<br />
|-<br />
|Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||809<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kônin||弘仁||810<br />
|-<br />
|Junna||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||823<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenchô||天長||824<br />
|-<br />
|Nimmyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||833<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôwa||承和||834<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉祥||848<br />
|-<br />
|Montoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||850<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninju||仁寿||851<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Saikô||斉衡||854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennan||天安||857<br />
|-<br />
|Seiwa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||858<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgan||貞観||859<br />
|-<br />
|Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||876<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gangyô||元慶||877<br />
|-<br />
|Koko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||884<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninna||仁和||885<br />
|-<br />
|Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||887<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpyô||寛平||889<br />
|-<br />
|Daigo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||897<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtai||昌泰||898<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Engi||延喜||901<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enchô||延長||923<br />
|-<br />
|Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||930<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhei||承平||931<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengyô||天慶||938<br />
|-<br />
|Murakami||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||946<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô||天正||947<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'yô||天養||957<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôwa||応和||961<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhô||康保||964<br />
|-<br />
|Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||967<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Anna||安和||968<br />
|-<br />
|Enyu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||969<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenryaku||天暦||970<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'en||天延||973<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||貞元||976<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengen||天元||978<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikan||永観||983<br />
|-<br />
|Kazan||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||984<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanna||寛和||985<br />
|-<br />
|Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||986<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eien||永延||987<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiso||永祚||988<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôryaku||正暦||990<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôtoku||長徳||995<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôhô||長保||999<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kankô||寛弘||1004<br />
|-<br />
|Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1011<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôwa||長和||1012<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1016<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kannin||寛仁||1017<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jian||治安||1021<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manju||万寿||1024<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôgen||長元||1028<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1036<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôryaku||長暦||1037<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyû||長久||1040<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kantoku||寛徳||1044<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1045<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永承||1046<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengi||天喜||1053<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhei||康平||1058<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jiryaku||治暦||1065<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1068<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyû||延久||1069<br />
|-<br />
|Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1072<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhô||承保||1074<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôryaku||承暦||1077<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eihô||永保||1081<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôtoku||応徳||1084<br />
|-<br />
|Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1086<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanji||寛治||1087<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kahô||嘉保||1094<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eichô||永長||1096<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôtoku||承徳||1097<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôwa||康和||1099<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôji||長治||1104<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉承||1106<br />
|-<br />
|Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1107<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennin||天仁||1108<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ei||天永||1110<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyû||永久||1113<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gen'ei||元永||1118<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôan||保安||1120<br />
|-<br />
|Sutoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1123<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenji||天治||1124<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiji||大治||1126<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tentoku||天徳||1131<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôshô||長承||1132<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôen||保延||1135<br />
|-<br />
|Konoe||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiji||永治||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||康治||1142<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tokuji||徳治||1144<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûan||久安||1145<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninpei||仁平||1151<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûju||久寿||1154<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1155<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôgen||保元||1156<br />
|-<br />
|Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1158<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heiji||平治||1159<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiryaku||永暦||1160<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôhô||応保||1161<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkan||長寛||1163<br />
|-<br />
|Rokujô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiman||永万||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninnan||仁安||1166<br />
|-<br />
|Takakura||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1168<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaô||嘉応||1169<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôan||承安||1171<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Angen||安元||1175<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jishô||治承||1177<br />
|-<br />
|Antoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1180<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||1181<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Juei||寿永||1182<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1183<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genryaku||元暦||1184<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunji||文治||1185<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenkyû||建久||1190<br />
|-<br />
|Tsuchimikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1198<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôji||正治||1199<br />
|-<br />
|Juntoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kennin||建仁||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genkyû||元久||1204<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ken'ei||建永||1206<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||承元||1207<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenryaku||建暦||1211<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenpô]||建保||1213<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyû||承久||1219<br />
|-<br />
|Chukyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||貞応||1222<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gennin||元仁||1224<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Karoku||嘉禄||1225<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Antei||安貞||1227<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanki||寛喜||1229<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|Shijo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôei||貞永||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpuku||天福||1233<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunryaku||文暦||1234<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Katei||嘉禎||1235<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ryakunin||暦仁||1238<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||En'ô||延応||1239<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninji||仁治||1240<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kangen||寛元||1243<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fukakusa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1246<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôji||宝治||1247<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenchô||建長||1249<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôgen||康元||1256<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôka||正嘉||1257<br />
|-<br />
|Kameyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôgen||正元||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ô||文応||1260<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôcho||弘長||1261<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ei||文永||1264<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1274<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenji||建治||1275<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôan||弘安||1278<br />
|-<br />
|Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôô||正応||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Einin||永仁||1293<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1298<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôan||正安||1299<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1301<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kengen||乾元||1302<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kagen||嘉元||1303<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Wadô||和銅||1306<br />
|-<br />
|Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkei||延慶||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôchô||応長||1311<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||正和||1312<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunpô||文保||1317<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="4" |'''Nanboku Court Period'''<br />
|-<br />
|Shoko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1412<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôchô||正長||1428<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1428<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyô||永享||1429<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kakitsu||嘉吉||1441<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'an||文安||1444<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôtoku||宝徳||1449<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôtoku||享徳||1452<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôshô||康正||1455<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôroku||長禄||1457<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanshô||寛正||1460<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Tsuchimakado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1464<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunshô||文正||1466<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ônin||応仁||1467<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunmei||文明||1469<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyô||長享||1487<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Entoku||延徳||1489<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiô||明応||1492<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kashiwabara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1500<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunki||文亀||1501<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永正||1504<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiei||大永||1521<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1526<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôroku||享禄||1528<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenbun||天文||1532<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||弘治||1555<br />
|-<br />
|Ogimachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1557<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiroku||永禄||1558<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genki||元亀||1570<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô]||天承||1573<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1586<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunroku||文禄||1592<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keichô||慶長||1596<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Mizunoo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1611<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genna||元和||1615<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'ei||寛永||1624<br />
|-<br />
|Meishô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1629<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kômyô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1643<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôhô||正保||1644<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keian||慶安||1648<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||承応||1652<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sai||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1654<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meireki||明暦||1655<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manji||万治||1658<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanbun||寛文||1661<br />
|-<br />
|Reigen||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1663<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enpô||延宝||1673<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenna||天和||1681<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyô||貞享||1684<br />
|-<br />
|Higashiyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1687<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genroku||元禄||1688<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôei||宝永||1704<br />
|-<br />
|Nakamikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1709<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtoku||正徳||1711<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôhô||享保||1716<br />
|-<br />
|Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1735<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genbun||元文||1736<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpô||寛保||1741<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyô||延享||1744<br />
|-<br />
|Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1747<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'en||寛延||1748<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôreki||宝暦||1751<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1762<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiwa||明和||1764<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1770<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||An'ei||安永||1772<br />
|-<br />
|Kokaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1779<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenmei||天明||1781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kansei||寛政||1789<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôwa||享和||1801<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunka||文化||1804<br />
|-<br />
|Ninko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1817<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunsei||文政||1818<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpô||天保||1830<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôka||弘化||1844<br />
|-<br />
|Komei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1846<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaei||嘉永||1848<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ansei||安政||1854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Man'en||万延||1860<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunkyû||文久||1861<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genji||元治||1864<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiô||慶応||1865<br />
|-<br />
|Meiji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1868<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiji||明治||1868<br />
|-<br />
|Taisho||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1912<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taishô||大正||1912<br />
|-<br />
|Showa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1926<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||昭和||1926<br />
|-<br />
|Heisei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1989<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heisei||平成||1989<br />
|-<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/tokugawa/keizuKoushitsu.htm Imperial Genealogy (Japanese)]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Emperors]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Emperors_of_Japan&diff=20790Emperors of Japan2011-10-15T07:11:32Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Heian Period 平安時代 */</p>
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<div>The succession of Emperors as described in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' and the ''[[Kojiki]]'' cannot be taken at face-value. Neither can the presented dates for those before reign of [[Emperor Kimmei]], who ruled from [[539]] to [[571]]<ref>Funke, Mark C. Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 49, No. 1. (Spring, 1994), page 11.</ref> be trusted. <br />
<br />
The following list has been divided up by eras, and most importantly by those that fall under the "mythological" or "historical" categories. [[Emperor Sujin]] is believed to have been the first "historical" Emperor (being the first Emperor to rule in the growing [[Yamato province|Yamato]] region) after the tribal confederacies that had held power previously--this does not mean, however, that he and those that followed did not have highly ficionalized lives.<br />
<br />
Recent scholarship has raised the possibility that Emperors [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] and [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]], and [[Empress Jingu|Empress Jing&ucirc;]] were completely ficticious characters<ref>Edwards, Walter. In Pursuit of Himiko. Postwar Archaeology and the Location of Yamatai. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 51, No. 1. (Spring, 1996), page 60n.</ref>. This assertion could very well apply to many other early Emperors, while others are most likely composite figures--an amalgamation of various important figures in early Japan. <br />
<br />
==Mythological==<br />
1. [[Emperor Jimmu|Jimmu]] 660 - 582 BC <br />
<br />
2. [[Emperor Suizei|Suizei]] 581 - 549 <br />
<br />
3. [[Emperor Annei|Annei]] 549 - 511<br />
<br />
4. [[Emperor Itoku|Itoku]] 510 - 476 <br />
<br />
5. [[Emperor Kosho|K&ocirc;sh&ocirc;]] 475 - 393 <br />
<br />
6. [[Emperor Koan|K&ocirc;an]] 392 - 291 <br />
<br />
7. [[Emperor Korei|K&ocirc;rei]] 290 - 215 <br />
<br />
8. [[Emperor Kogen|K&ocirc;gen]] 214 - 158 <br />
<br />
9. [[Emperor Kaika|Kaika]] 157 - 98<br />
<br />
==Historical==<br />
<br />
10. [[Emperor Sujin|Sujin]] 97-30 <br />
<br />
11. [[Emperor Suinin|Suinin]] 29 BC- 70 AD<br />
<br />
12. [[Emperor Keiko|Keiko]] 71 - 130 <br />
<br />
13. [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] 131 - 191 <br />
<br />
14. [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]] 192 - 200<br />
<br />
: [[Empress Jingu|Jing&ucirc;]] 209 - 269 (Regent) <br />
<br />
15. [[Emperor Ojin|&Ocirc;jin]] 270 - 310 <br />
<br />
16. [[Emperor Nintoku|Nintoku]] 313 - 399 <br />
<br />
17. [[Emperor Richu|Rich&ucirc;]] 400 - 405 <br />
<br />
18. [[Emperor Hanzei|Hanzei]] 406 - 410 <br />
<br />
19. [[Emperor Ingyo|Ingy&ocirc;]] 411 - 453 <br />
<br />
20. [[Emperor Anko|Ank&ocirc;]] 453 - 456 <br />
<br />
21. [[Emperor Yuryaku|Y&ucirc;ryaku]] 456 - 479 <br />
<br />
22. [[Emperor Seinei|Seinei]] 480 - 484 <br />
<br />
23. [[Emperor Kenso|Kenso]] 485 - 487 <br />
<br />
24. [[Emperor Ninken|Ninken]] 488 - 498 <br />
<br />
25. [[Emperor Buretsu|Buretsu]] 498 - 506 <br />
<br />
26. [[Emperor Keitai|Keitai]] 507 - 531 <br />
<br />
27. [[Emperor Ankan|Ankan]] 531 - 536<br />
<br />
===Asuka Period 飛鳥時代===<br />
28. [[Emperor Senka|Senka]] 536 - 539 <br />
<br />
29. [[Emperor Kimmei|Kimmei]] 540 - 571 <br />
<br />
30. [[Emperor Bidatsu|Bidatsu]] 572 - 585 <br />
<br />
31. [[Emperor Yomei|Yomei]] 585 - 587 <br />
<br />
32. [[Emperor Sushun|Sushun]] 588 - 592 <br />
<br />
33. [[Empress Suiko|Suiko]] 593 - 628 <br />
<br />
34. [[Emperor Jomei|Jomei]] 629 - 641 <br />
<br />
35. [[Empress Kogyoku|Kogyoku (Saimei)]] 642 - 644 <br />
<br />
36. [[Emperor Kotoku|Kotoku (Taika)]] 645 - 654 <br />
<br />
37. [[Empress Saimei|Saimei]] 655 - 660 <br />
<br />
38. [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] 661 - 670 <br />
<br />
39. [[Emperor Kobun|Kobun]] 671 - 672 <br />
<br />
40. [[Emperor Temmu|Temmu]] 673 - 685 <br />
<br />
41. [[Empress Jito|Jito]] 686 - 696 <br />
<br />
42. [[Emperor Mommu|Mommu]] 697 - 706 <br />
<br />
===Nara Period 奈良時代===<br />
43. Gemmei 707-714 <br />
<br />
44. Genshô(Yoro) 715-723 <br />
<br />
45. Shomu 724-749 <br />
<br />
46. Koken(Shotoku) 749-758 <br />
<br />
47. Junnin 758-763 <br />
<br />
48. Shotoku(Koken) 764-770 <br />
<br />
49. Konin 770-780 <br />
<br />
===Heian Period 平安時代===<br />
50. Kammu 781-806 <br />
<br />
51. Heizei 806-809 <br />
<br />
52. Saga 809-823 <br />
<br />
53. Junna 823-833 <br />
<br />
54. Nimmyo 833-850 <br />
<br />
55. Montoku 850-858 <br />
<br />
56. Seiwa 858-876 <br />
<br />
57. Yozei 876-884 <br />
<br />
58. Koko 884-887 <br />
<br />
59. Uda 887-897 <br />
<br />
60. Daigo 897-930 <br />
<br />
61. Suzaku 930-946 <br />
<br />
62. Murakami 946-967 <br />
<br />
63. Reizei 967-969 <br />
<br />
64. Enyu 969-984 <br />
<br />
65. Kazan 984-986 <br />
<br />
66. Ichijô 986-1011 <br />
<br />
67. Sanjo 1011-1016 <br />
<br />
68. Go-Ichijô 1016-1036 <br />
<br />
69. Go-Suzaku 1036-1045 <br />
<br />
70. Go-Reizei 1045-1068 <br />
<br />
71. Go-Sanjo 1068-1072 <br />
<br />
72. Shirakawa 1072-1086 <br />
<br />
73. Horikawa 1086-1107 <br />
<br />
74. Toba 1107-1123 <br />
<br />
75. Sutoku 1123-1141 <br />
<br />
76. Konoe 1141-1155 <br />
<br />
77. Go-Shirakawa 1155-1158 <br />
<br />
78. Nijô 1158-1165 <br />
<br />
79. Rokujô 1165-1168 <br />
<br />
80. Takakura 1168-1180 <br />
<br />
81. Antoku 1180-1183<br />
<br />
===Kamakura Period 鎌倉時代===<br />
82. Go-Toba 1183-1198 <br />
<br />
83. Tsuchimikado 1198-1210 <br />
<br />
84. Juntoku 1201-1221 <br />
<br />
85. Chukyo 1221 <br />
<br />
86. Go-Horikawa 1221-1232 <br />
<br />
87. Shijo 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
88. Go-Saga 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
89. Go-Fukakusa 1246-1259 <br />
<br />
90. Kameyama 1259-1274 <br />
<br />
91. Go-Uda 1274-1287 <br />
<br />
92. Fushimi 1288-1298 <br />
<br />
93. Go-Fushimi 1298-1301 <br />
<br />
94. Go-Nijô 1301-1308 <br />
<br />
95. Hanazono 1308-1318 <br />
<br />
===Muromachi Period 室町時代===<br />
96. [[Emperor Go-Daigo|Go-Daigo]] 1318-1339 <br />
<br />
97. Go-Murakami 1339-1367 <br />
<br />
98. Chokei 1368-1383 <br />
<br />
99. Go-Kameyama 1383-1392 <br />
<br />
====Northern Court====<br />
*Kôgon 1331-1333 <br />
*Kômyô 1336-1347 <br />
*Sukô 1348-1351 <br />
*Go-Kôgon 1352-1370 <br />
*Go-En'yû 1371-1372 <br />
<br />
<br />
100. Go-Komatsu 1392-1412 <br />
<br />
101. Shôkô 1412-1427 <br />
<br />
102. Go-Hanazono 1428-1463 <br />
<br />
103. Go-Tsuchimakado 1464-1499 <br />
<br />
104. Go-Kashiwabara 1500-1525 <br />
<br />
105. Go-Nara 1526-1556 <br />
<br />
106. [[Emperor Ogimachi|Ôgimachi]] 1557-1585 <br />
<br />
107. Go-Yôzei 1586-1610<br />
<br />
===Edo Period 江戸時代===<br />
108. Go-Mizunoo 1611-1629 <br />
<br />
109. Meishô 1629-1643 <br />
<br />
110. Go-Kômyô 1643-1653 <br />
<br />
111. Go-Sai 1654-1662 <br />
<br />
112. Reigen 1663-1686 <br />
<br />
113. Higashiyama 1687-1709 <br />
<br />
114. Nakamikado 1709-1735 <br />
<br />
115. Sakuramachi 1735-1746 <br />
<br />
116. Momozono 1747-1761 <br />
<br />
117. Go-Sakuramachi 1762-1770 <br />
<br />
118. Go-Momozono 1770-1778 <br />
<br />
119. Kokaku 1779-1816 <br />
<br />
120. Ninko 1817-1845 <br />
<br />
121. Komei 1846-1867<br />
<br />
===Meiji Period 明治時代===<br />
<br />
122. [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]] 1868-1912<br />
<br />
===Modern Era 現代===<br />
123. Taishô 1912 - 1926<br />
<br />
124. Shôwa 1926 - 1989<br />
<br />
125. Heisei 1989 - Present<br />
<br />
==Emperors and Eras==<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Kotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taika||大化||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hakuchi||白雉||650<br />
|-<br />
|Saimei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||655<br />
|-<br />
|Tenji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||661<br />
|-<br />
|Kobun||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||671<br />
|-<br />
|Temmu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||673<br />
|-<br />
|Jito||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||686<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shuchô||朱鳥||686<br />
|-<br />
|Mommu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||697<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taihô||大宝||701<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiun||慶雲||704<br />
|-<br />
|Gemmei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||707<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôrô||養老||708<br />
|-<br />
|Genshô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Reiki||霊亀||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||717<br />
|-<br />
|Shomu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jinki||神亀||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô||天平||729<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-kanpô||天平感宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|Koken||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-shôhô||天平勝宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-hôji||天平宝字||757<br />
|-<br />
|Junnin||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||758<br />
|-<br />
|Shotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||764<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-jingo||天平神護||765<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jingo-keiun||神護景雲||767<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôki||宝亀||770<br />
|-<br />
|Kammu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ô||天応||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enryaku||延暦||782<br />
|-<br />
|Heizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||806<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daidô||大同||806<br />
|-<br />
|Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||809<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kônin||弘仁||810<br />
|-<br />
|Junna||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||823<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenchô||天長||824<br />
|-<br />
|Nimmyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||833<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôwa||承和||834<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉祥||848<br />
|-<br />
|Montoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||850<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninju||仁寿||851<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Saikô||斉衡||854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennan||天安||857<br />
|-<br />
|Seiwa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||858<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgan||貞観||859<br />
|-<br />
|Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||877<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gangyô||元慶||877<br />
|-<br />
|Koko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||884<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninna||仁和||885<br />
|-<br />
|Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||887<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpyô||寛平||889<br />
|-<br />
|Daigo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||897<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtai||昌泰||898<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Engi||延喜||901<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enchô||延長||923<br />
|-<br />
|Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||930<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhei||承平||931<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengyô||天慶||938<br />
|-<br />
|Murakami||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||946<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô||天正||947<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'yô||天養||957<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôwa||応和||961<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhô||康保||964<br />
|-<br />
|Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||967<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Anna||安和||968<br />
|-<br />
|Enyu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||969<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenryaku||天暦||970<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'en||天延||973<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||貞元||976<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengen||天元||978<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikan||永観||983<br />
|-<br />
|Kazan||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||984<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanna||寛和||985<br />
|-<br />
|Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||986<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eien||永延||987<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiso||永祚||988<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôryaku||正暦||990<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôtoku||長徳||995<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôhô||長保||999<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kankô||寛弘||1004<br />
|-<br />
|Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1011<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôwa||長和||1012<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1016<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kannin||寛仁||1017<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jian||治安||1021<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manju||万寿||1024<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôgen||長元||1028<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1036<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôryaku||長暦||1037<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyû||長久||1040<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kantoku||寛徳||1044<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1045<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永承||1046<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengi||天喜||1053<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhei||康平||1058<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jiryaku||治暦||1065<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1068<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyû||延久||1069<br />
|-<br />
|Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1072<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhô||承保||1074<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôryaku||承暦||1077<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eihô||永保||1081<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôtoku||応徳||1084<br />
|-<br />
|Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1086<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanji||寛治||1087<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kahô||嘉保||1094<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eichô||永長||1096<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôtoku||承徳||1097<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôwa||康和||1099<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôji||長治||1104<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉承||1106<br />
|-<br />
|Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1107<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennin||天仁||1108<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ei||天永||1110<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyû||永久||1113<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gen'ei||元永||1118<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôan||保安||1120<br />
|-<br />
|Sutoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1123<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenji||天治||1124<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiji||大治||1126<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tentoku||天徳||1131<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôshô||長承||1132<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôen||保延||1135<br />
|-<br />
|Konoe||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiji||永治||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||康治||1142<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tokuji||徳治||1144<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûan||久安||1145<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninpei||仁平||1151<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûju||久寿||1154<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1155<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôgen||保元||1156<br />
|-<br />
|Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1158<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heiji||平治||1159<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiryaku||永暦||1160<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôhô||応保||1161<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkan||長寛||1163<br />
|-<br />
|Rokujô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiman||永万||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninnan||仁安||1166<br />
|-<br />
|Takakura||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1168<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaô||嘉応||1169<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôan||承安||1171<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Angen||安元||1175<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jishô||治承||1177<br />
|-<br />
|Antoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1180<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||1181<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Juei||寿永||1182<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1183<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genryaku||元暦||1184<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunji||文治||1185<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenkyû||建久||1190<br />
|-<br />
|Tsuchimikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1198<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôji||正治||1199<br />
|-<br />
|Juntoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kennin||建仁||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genkyû||元久||1204<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ken'ei||建永||1206<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||承元||1207<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenryaku||建暦||1211<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenpô]||建保||1213<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyû||承久||1219<br />
|-<br />
|Chukyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||貞応||1222<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gennin||元仁||1224<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Karoku||嘉禄||1225<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Antei||安貞||1227<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanki||寛喜||1229<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|Shijo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôei||貞永||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpuku||天福||1233<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunryaku||文暦||1234<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Katei||嘉禎||1235<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ryakunin||暦仁||1238<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||En'ô||延応||1239<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninji||仁治||1240<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kangen||寛元||1243<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fukakusa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1246<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôji||宝治||1247<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenchô||建長||1249<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôgen||康元||1256<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôka||正嘉||1257<br />
|-<br />
|Kameyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôgen||正元||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ô||文応||1260<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôcho||弘長||1261<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ei||文永||1264<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1274<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenji||建治||1275<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôan||弘安||1278<br />
|-<br />
|Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôô||正応||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Einin||永仁||1293<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1298<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôan||正安||1299<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1301<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kengen||乾元||1302<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kagen||嘉元||1303<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Wadô||和銅||1306<br />
|-<br />
|Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkei||延慶||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôchô||応長||1311<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||正和||1312<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunpô||文保||1317<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="4" |'''Nanboku Court Period'''<br />
|-<br />
|Shoko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1412<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôchô||正長||1428<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1428<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyô||永享||1429<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kakitsu||嘉吉||1441<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'an||文安||1444<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôtoku||宝徳||1449<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôtoku||享徳||1452<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôshô||康正||1455<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôroku||長禄||1457<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanshô||寛正||1460<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Tsuchimakado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1464<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunshô||文正||1466<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ônin||応仁||1467<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunmei||文明||1469<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyô||長享||1487<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Entoku||延徳||1489<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiô||明応||1492<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kashiwabara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1500<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunki||文亀||1501<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永正||1504<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiei||大永||1521<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1526<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôroku||享禄||1528<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenbun||天文||1532<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||弘治||1555<br />
|-<br />
|Ogimachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1557<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiroku||永禄||1558<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genki||元亀||1570<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô]||天承||1573<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1586<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunroku||文禄||1592<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keichô||慶長||1596<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Mizunoo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1611<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genna||元和||1615<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'ei||寛永||1624<br />
|-<br />
|Meishô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1629<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kômyô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1643<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôhô||正保||1644<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keian||慶安||1648<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||承応||1652<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sai||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1654<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meireki||明暦||1655<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manji||万治||1658<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanbun||寛文||1661<br />
|-<br />
|Reigen||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1663<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enpô||延宝||1673<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenna||天和||1681<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyô||貞享||1684<br />
|-<br />
|Higashiyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1687<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genroku||元禄||1688<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôei||宝永||1704<br />
|-<br />
|Nakamikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1709<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtoku||正徳||1711<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôhô||享保||1716<br />
|-<br />
|Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1735<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genbun||元文||1736<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpô||寛保||1741<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyô||延享||1744<br />
|-<br />
|Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1747<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'en||寛延||1748<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôreki||宝暦||1751<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1762<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiwa||明和||1764<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1770<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||An'ei||安永||1772<br />
|-<br />
|Kokaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1779<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenmei||天明||1781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kansei||寛政||1789<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôwa||享和||1801<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunka||文化||1804<br />
|-<br />
|Ninko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1817<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunsei||文政||1818<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpô||天保||1830<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôka||弘化||1844<br />
|-<br />
|Komei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1846<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaei||嘉永||1848<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ansei||安政||1854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Man'en||万延||1860<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunkyû||文久||1861<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genji||元治||1864<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiô||慶応||1865<br />
|-<br />
|Meiji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1868<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiji||明治||1868<br />
|-<br />
|Taisho||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1912<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taishô||大正||1912<br />
|-<br />
|Showa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1926<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||昭和||1926<br />
|-<br />
|Heisei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1989<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heisei||平成||1989<br />
|-<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/tokugawa/keizuKoushitsu.htm Imperial Genealogy (Japanese)]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Emperors]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Emperors_of_Japan&diff=20789Emperors of Japan2011-10-15T06:53:06Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Emperors and Eras */</p>
<hr />
<div>The succession of Emperors as described in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' and the ''[[Kojiki]]'' cannot be taken at face-value. Neither can the presented dates for those before reign of [[Emperor Kimmei]], who ruled from [[539]] to [[571]]<ref>Funke, Mark C. Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 49, No. 1. (Spring, 1994), page 11.</ref> be trusted. <br />
<br />
The following list has been divided up by eras, and most importantly by those that fall under the "mythological" or "historical" categories. [[Emperor Sujin]] is believed to have been the first "historical" Emperor (being the first Emperor to rule in the growing [[Yamato province|Yamato]] region) after the tribal confederacies that had held power previously--this does not mean, however, that he and those that followed did not have highly ficionalized lives.<br />
<br />
Recent scholarship has raised the possibility that Emperors [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] and [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]], and [[Empress Jingu|Empress Jing&ucirc;]] were completely ficticious characters<ref>Edwards, Walter. In Pursuit of Himiko. Postwar Archaeology and the Location of Yamatai. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 51, No. 1. (Spring, 1996), page 60n.</ref>. This assertion could very well apply to many other early Emperors, while others are most likely composite figures--an amalgamation of various important figures in early Japan. <br />
<br />
==Mythological==<br />
1. [[Emperor Jimmu|Jimmu]] 660 - 582 BC <br />
<br />
2. [[Emperor Suizei|Suizei]] 581 - 549 <br />
<br />
3. [[Emperor Annei|Annei]] 549 - 511<br />
<br />
4. [[Emperor Itoku|Itoku]] 510 - 476 <br />
<br />
5. [[Emperor Kosho|K&ocirc;sh&ocirc;]] 475 - 393 <br />
<br />
6. [[Emperor Koan|K&ocirc;an]] 392 - 291 <br />
<br />
7. [[Emperor Korei|K&ocirc;rei]] 290 - 215 <br />
<br />
8. [[Emperor Kogen|K&ocirc;gen]] 214 - 158 <br />
<br />
9. [[Emperor Kaika|Kaika]] 157 - 98<br />
<br />
==Historical==<br />
<br />
10. [[Emperor Sujin|Sujin]] 97-30 <br />
<br />
11. [[Emperor Suinin|Suinin]] 29 BC- 70 AD<br />
<br />
12. [[Emperor Keiko|Keiko]] 71 - 130 <br />
<br />
13. [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] 131 - 191 <br />
<br />
14. [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]] 192 - 200<br />
<br />
: [[Empress Jingu|Jing&ucirc;]] 209 - 269 (Regent) <br />
<br />
15. [[Emperor Ojin|&Ocirc;jin]] 270 - 310 <br />
<br />
16. [[Emperor Nintoku|Nintoku]] 313 - 399 <br />
<br />
17. [[Emperor Richu|Rich&ucirc;]] 400 - 405 <br />
<br />
18. [[Emperor Hanzei|Hanzei]] 406 - 410 <br />
<br />
19. [[Emperor Ingyo|Ingy&ocirc;]] 411 - 453 <br />
<br />
20. [[Emperor Anko|Ank&ocirc;]] 453 - 456 <br />
<br />
21. [[Emperor Yuryaku|Y&ucirc;ryaku]] 456 - 479 <br />
<br />
22. [[Emperor Seinei|Seinei]] 480 - 484 <br />
<br />
23. [[Emperor Kenso|Kenso]] 485 - 487 <br />
<br />
24. [[Emperor Ninken|Ninken]] 488 - 498 <br />
<br />
25. [[Emperor Buretsu|Buretsu]] 498 - 506 <br />
<br />
26. [[Emperor Keitai|Keitai]] 507 - 531 <br />
<br />
27. [[Emperor Ankan|Ankan]] 531 - 536<br />
<br />
===Asuka Period 飛鳥時代===<br />
28. [[Emperor Senka|Senka]] 536 - 539 <br />
<br />
29. [[Emperor Kimmei|Kimmei]] 540 - 571 <br />
<br />
30. [[Emperor Bidatsu|Bidatsu]] 572 - 585 <br />
<br />
31. [[Emperor Yomei|Yomei]] 585 - 587 <br />
<br />
32. [[Emperor Sushun|Sushun]] 588 - 592 <br />
<br />
33. [[Empress Suiko|Suiko]] 593 - 628 <br />
<br />
34. [[Emperor Jomei|Jomei]] 629 - 641 <br />
<br />
35. [[Empress Kogyoku|Kogyoku (Saimei)]] 642 - 644 <br />
<br />
36. [[Emperor Kotoku|Kotoku (Taika)]] 645 - 654 <br />
<br />
37. [[Empress Saimei|Saimei]] 655 - 660 <br />
<br />
38. [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] 661 - 670 <br />
<br />
39. [[Emperor Kobun|Kobun]] 671 - 672 <br />
<br />
40. [[Emperor Temmu|Temmu]] 673 - 685 <br />
<br />
41. [[Empress Jito|Jito]] 686 - 696 <br />
<br />
42. [[Emperor Mommu|Mommu]] 697 - 706 <br />
<br />
===Nara Period 奈良時代===<br />
43. Gemmei 707-714 <br />
<br />
44. Genshô(Yoro) 715-723 <br />
<br />
45. Shomu 724-749 <br />
<br />
46. Koken(Shotoku) 749-758 <br />
<br />
47. Junnin 758-763 <br />
<br />
48. Shotoku(Koken) 764-770 <br />
<br />
49. Konin 770-780 <br />
<br />
===Heian Period 平安時代===<br />
50. Kammu 781-806 <br />
<br />
51. Heizei 806-809 <br />
<br />
52. Saga 809-823 <br />
<br />
53. Junna 823-833 <br />
<br />
54. Nimmyo 833-850 <br />
<br />
55. Montoku 850-858 <br />
<br />
56. Seiwa 858-876 <br />
<br />
57. Yozei 877-884 <br />
<br />
58. Koko 884-887 <br />
<br />
59. Uda 887-897 <br />
<br />
60. Daigo 897-930 <br />
<br />
61. Suzaku 930-946 <br />
<br />
62. Murakami 946-967 <br />
<br />
63. Reizei 967-969 <br />
<br />
64. Enyu 969-984 <br />
<br />
65. Kazan 984-986 <br />
<br />
66. Ichijô 986-1011 <br />
<br />
67. Sanjo 1011-1016 <br />
<br />
68. Go-Ichijô 1016-1036 <br />
<br />
69. Go-Suzaku 1036-1045 <br />
<br />
70. Go-Reizei 1045-1068 <br />
<br />
71. Go-Sanjo 1068-1072 <br />
<br />
72. Shirakawa 1072-1086 <br />
<br />
73. Horikawa 1086-1107 <br />
<br />
74. Toba 1107-1123 <br />
<br />
75. Sutoku 1123-1141 <br />
<br />
76. Konoe 1141-1155 <br />
<br />
77. Go-Shirakawa 1155-1158 <br />
<br />
78. Nijô 1158-1165 <br />
<br />
79. Rokujô 1165-1168 <br />
<br />
80. Takakura 1168-1180 <br />
<br />
81. Antoku 1180-1183 <br />
<br />
===Kamakura Period 鎌倉時代===<br />
82. Go-Toba 1183-1198 <br />
<br />
83. Tsuchimikado 1198-1210 <br />
<br />
84. Juntoku 1201-1221 <br />
<br />
85. Chukyo 1221 <br />
<br />
86. Go-Horikawa 1221-1232 <br />
<br />
87. Shijo 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
88. Go-Saga 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
89. Go-Fukakusa 1246-1259 <br />
<br />
90. Kameyama 1259-1274 <br />
<br />
91. Go-Uda 1274-1287 <br />
<br />
92. Fushimi 1288-1298 <br />
<br />
93. Go-Fushimi 1298-1301 <br />
<br />
94. Go-Nijô 1301-1308 <br />
<br />
95. Hanazono 1308-1318 <br />
<br />
===Muromachi Period 室町時代===<br />
96. [[Emperor Go-Daigo|Go-Daigo]] 1318-1339 <br />
<br />
97. Go-Murakami 1339-1367 <br />
<br />
98. Chokei 1368-1383 <br />
<br />
99. Go-Kameyama 1383-1392 <br />
<br />
====Northern Court====<br />
*Kôgon 1331-1333 <br />
*Kômyô 1336-1347 <br />
*Sukô 1348-1351 <br />
*Go-Kôgon 1352-1370 <br />
*Go-En'yû 1371-1372 <br />
<br />
<br />
100. Go-Komatsu 1392-1412 <br />
<br />
101. Shôkô 1412-1427 <br />
<br />
102. Go-Hanazono 1428-1463 <br />
<br />
103. Go-Tsuchimakado 1464-1499 <br />
<br />
104. Go-Kashiwabara 1500-1525 <br />
<br />
105. Go-Nara 1526-1556 <br />
<br />
106. [[Emperor Ogimachi|Ôgimachi]] 1557-1585 <br />
<br />
107. Go-Yôzei 1586-1610<br />
<br />
===Edo Period 江戸時代===<br />
108. Go-Mizunoo 1611-1629 <br />
<br />
109. Meishô 1629-1643 <br />
<br />
110. Go-Kômyô 1643-1653 <br />
<br />
111. Go-Sai 1654-1662 <br />
<br />
112. Reigen 1663-1686 <br />
<br />
113. Higashiyama 1687-1709 <br />
<br />
114. Nakamikado 1709-1735 <br />
<br />
115. Sakuramachi 1735-1746 <br />
<br />
116. Momozono 1747-1761 <br />
<br />
117. Go-Sakuramachi 1762-1770 <br />
<br />
118. Go-Momozono 1770-1778 <br />
<br />
119. Kokaku 1779-1816 <br />
<br />
120. Ninko 1817-1845 <br />
<br />
121. Komei 1846-1867<br />
<br />
===Meiji Period 明治時代===<br />
<br />
122. [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]] 1868-1912<br />
<br />
===Modern Era 現代===<br />
123. Taishô 1912 - 1926<br />
<br />
124. Shôwa 1926 - 1989<br />
<br />
125. Heisei 1989 - Present<br />
<br />
==Emperors and Eras==<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Kotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taika||大化||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hakuchi||白雉||650<br />
|-<br />
|Saimei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||655<br />
|-<br />
|Tenji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||661<br />
|-<br />
|Kobun||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||671<br />
|-<br />
|Temmu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||673<br />
|-<br />
|Jito||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||686<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shuchô||朱鳥||686<br />
|-<br />
|Mommu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||697<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taihô||大宝||701<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiun||慶雲||704<br />
|-<br />
|Gemmei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||707<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôrô||養老||708<br />
|-<br />
|Genshô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Reiki||霊亀||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||717<br />
|-<br />
|Shomu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jinki||神亀||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô||天平||729<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-kanpô||天平感宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|Koken||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-shôhô||天平勝宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-hôji||天平宝字||757<br />
|-<br />
|Junnin||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||758<br />
|-<br />
|Shotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||764<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-jingo||天平神護||765<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jingo-keiun||神護景雲||767<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôki||宝亀||770<br />
|-<br />
|Kammu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ô||天応||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enryaku||延暦||782<br />
|-<br />
|Heizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||806<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daidô||大同||806<br />
|-<br />
|Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||809<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kônin||弘仁||810<br />
|-<br />
|Junna||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||823<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenchô||天長||824<br />
|-<br />
|Nimmyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||833<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôwa||承和||834<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉祥||848<br />
|-<br />
|Montoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||850<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninju||仁寿||851<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Saikô||斉衡||854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennan||天安||857<br />
|-<br />
|Seiwa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||858<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgan||貞観||859<br />
|-<br />
|Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||877<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gangyô||元慶||877<br />
|-<br />
|Koko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||884<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninna||仁和||885<br />
|-<br />
|Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||887<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpyô||寛平||889<br />
|-<br />
|Daigo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||897<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtai||昌泰||898<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Engi||延喜||901<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enchô||延長||923<br />
|-<br />
|Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||930<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhei||承平||931<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengyô||天慶||938<br />
|-<br />
|Murakami||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||946<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô||天正||947<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'yô||天養||957<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôwa||応和||961<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhô||康保||964<br />
|-<br />
|Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||967<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Anna||安和||968<br />
|-<br />
|Enyu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||969<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenryaku||天暦||970<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'en||天延||973<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||貞元||976<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengen||天元||978<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikan||永観||983<br />
|-<br />
|Kazan||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||984<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanna||寛和||985<br />
|-<br />
|Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||986<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eien||永延||987<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiso||永祚||988<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôryaku||正暦||990<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôtoku||長徳||995<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôhô||長保||999<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kankô||寛弘||1004<br />
|-<br />
|Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1011<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôwa||長和||1012<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1016<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kannin||寛仁||1017<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jian||治安||1021<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manju||万寿||1024<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôgen||長元||1028<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1036<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôryaku||長暦||1037<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyû||長久||1040<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kantoku||寛徳||1044<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1045<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永承||1046<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengi||天喜||1053<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhei||康平||1058<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jiryaku||治暦||1065<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1068<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyû||延久||1069<br />
|-<br />
|Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1072<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhô||承保||1074<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôryaku||承暦||1077<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eihô||永保||1081<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôtoku||応徳||1084<br />
|-<br />
|Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1086<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanji||寛治||1087<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kahô||嘉保||1094<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eichô||永長||1096<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôtoku||承徳||1097<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôwa||康和||1099<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôji||長治||1104<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉承||1106<br />
|-<br />
|Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1107<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennin||天仁||1108<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ei||天永||1110<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyû||永久||1113<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gen'ei||元永||1118<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôan||保安||1120<br />
|-<br />
|Sutoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1123<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenji||天治||1124<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiji||大治||1126<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tentoku||天徳||1131<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôshô||長承||1132<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôen||保延||1135<br />
|-<br />
|Konoe||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiji||永治||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||康治||1142<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tokuji||徳治||1144<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûan||久安||1145<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninpei||仁平||1151<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûju||久寿||1154<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1155<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôgen||保元||1156<br />
|-<br />
|Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1158<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heiji||平治||1159<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiryaku||永暦||1160<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôhô||応保||1161<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkan||長寛||1163<br />
|-<br />
|Rokujô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiman||永万||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninnan||仁安||1166<br />
|-<br />
|Takakura||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1168<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaô||嘉応||1169<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôan||承安||1171<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Angen||安元||1175<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jishô||治承||1177<br />
|-<br />
|Antoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1180<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||1181<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Juei||寿永||1182<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1183<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genryaku||元暦||1184<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunji||文治||1185<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenkyû||建久||1190<br />
|-<br />
|Tsuchimikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1198<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôji||正治||1199<br />
|-<br />
|Juntoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kennin||建仁||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genkyû||元久||1204<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ken'ei||建永||1206<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||承元||1207<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenryaku||建暦||1211<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenpô]||建保||1213<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyû||承久||1219<br />
|-<br />
|Chukyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||貞応||1222<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gennin||元仁||1224<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Karoku||嘉禄||1225<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Antei||安貞||1227<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanki||寛喜||1229<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|Shijo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôei||貞永||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpuku||天福||1233<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunryaku||文暦||1234<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Katei||嘉禎||1235<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ryakunin||暦仁||1238<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||En'ô||延応||1239<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninji||仁治||1240<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kangen||寛元||1243<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fukakusa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1246<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôji||宝治||1247<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenchô||建長||1249<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôgen||康元||1256<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôka||正嘉||1257<br />
|-<br />
|Kameyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôgen||正元||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ô||文応||1260<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôcho||弘長||1261<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ei||文永||1264<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1274<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenji||建治||1275<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôan||弘安||1278<br />
|-<br />
|Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôô||正応||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Einin||永仁||1293<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1298<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôan||正安||1299<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1301<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kengen||乾元||1302<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kagen||嘉元||1303<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Wadô||和銅||1306<br />
|-<br />
|Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkei||延慶||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôchô||応長||1311<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||正和||1312<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunpô||文保||1317<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="4" |'''Nanboku Court Period'''<br />
|-<br />
|Shoko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1412<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôchô||正長||1428<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1428<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyô||永享||1429<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kakitsu||嘉吉||1441<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'an||文安||1444<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôtoku||宝徳||1449<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôtoku||享徳||1452<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôshô||康正||1455<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôroku||長禄||1457<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanshô||寛正||1460<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Tsuchimakado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1464<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunshô||文正||1466<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ônin||応仁||1467<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunmei||文明||1469<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyô||長享||1487<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Entoku||延徳||1489<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiô||明応||1492<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kashiwabara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1500<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunki||文亀||1501<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永正||1504<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiei||大永||1521<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1526<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôroku||享禄||1528<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenbun||天文||1532<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||弘治||1555<br />
|-<br />
|Ogimachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1557<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiroku||永禄||1558<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genki||元亀||1570<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô]||天承||1573<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1586<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunroku||文禄||1592<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keichô||慶長||1596<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Mizunoo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1611<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genna||元和||1615<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'ei||寛永||1624<br />
|-<br />
|Meishô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1629<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kômyô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1643<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôhô||正保||1644<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keian||慶安||1648<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||承応||1652<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sai||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1654<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meireki||明暦||1655<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manji||万治||1658<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanbun||寛文||1661<br />
|-<br />
|Reigen||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1663<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enpô||延宝||1673<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenna||天和||1681<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyô||貞享||1684<br />
|-<br />
|Higashiyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1687<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genroku||元禄||1688<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôei||宝永||1704<br />
|-<br />
|Nakamikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1709<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtoku||正徳||1711<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôhô||享保||1716<br />
|-<br />
|Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1735<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genbun||元文||1736<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpô||寛保||1741<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyô||延享||1744<br />
|-<br />
|Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1747<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'en||寛延||1748<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôreki||宝暦||1751<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1762<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiwa||明和||1764<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1770<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||An'ei||安永||1772<br />
|-<br />
|Kokaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1779<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenmei||天明||1781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kansei||寛政||1789<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôwa||享和||1801<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunka||文化||1804<br />
|-<br />
|Ninko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1817<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunsei||文政||1818<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpô||天保||1830<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôka||弘化||1844<br />
|-<br />
|Komei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1846<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaei||嘉永||1848<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ansei||安政||1854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Man'en||万延||1860<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunkyû||文久||1861<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genji||元治||1864<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiô||慶応||1865<br />
|-<br />
|Meiji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1868<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiji||明治||1868<br />
|-<br />
|Taisho||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1912<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taishô||大正||1912<br />
|-<br />
|Showa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1926<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||昭和||1926<br />
|-<br />
|Heisei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1989<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heisei||平成||1989<br />
|-<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/tokugawa/keizuKoushitsu.htm Imperial Genealogy (Japanese)]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Emperors]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Emperors_of_Japan&diff=20615Emperors of Japan2011-09-05T09:07:53Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Emperors and Eras */</p>
<hr />
<div>The succession of Emperors as described in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' and the ''[[Kojiki]]'' cannot be taken at face-value. Neither can the presented dates for those before reign of [[Emperor Kimmei]], who ruled from [[539]] to [[571]]<ref>Funke, Mark C. Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 49, No. 1. (Spring, 1994), page 11.</ref> be trusted. <br />
<br />
The following list has been divided up by eras, and most importantly by those that fall under the "mythological" or "historical" categories. [[Emperor Sujin]] is believed to have been the first "historical" Emperor (being the first Emperor to rule in the growing [[Yamato province|Yamato]] region) after the tribal confederacies that had held power previously--this does not mean, however, that he and those that followed did not have highly ficionalized lives.<br />
<br />
Recent scholarship has raised the possibility that Emperors [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] and [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]], and [[Empress Jingu|Empress Jing&ucirc;]] were completely ficticious characters<ref>Edwards, Walter. In Pursuit of Himiko. Postwar Archaeology and the Location of Yamatai. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 51, No. 1. (Spring, 1996), page 60n.</ref>. This assertion could very well apply to many other early Emperors, while others are most likely composite figures--an amalgamation of various important figures in early Japan. <br />
<br />
==Mythological==<br />
1. [[Emperor Jimmu|Jimmu]] 660 - 582 BC <br />
<br />
2. [[Emperor Suizei|Suizei]] 581 - 549 <br />
<br />
3. [[Emperor Annei|Annei]] 549 - 511<br />
<br />
4. [[Emperor Itoku|Itoku]] 510 - 476 <br />
<br />
5. [[Emperor Kosho|K&ocirc;sh&ocirc;]] 475 - 393 <br />
<br />
6. [[Emperor Koan|K&ocirc;an]] 392 - 291 <br />
<br />
7. [[Emperor Korei|K&ocirc;rei]] 290 - 215 <br />
<br />
8. [[Emperor Kogen|K&ocirc;gen]] 214 - 158 <br />
<br />
9. [[Emperor Kaika|Kaika]] 157 - 98<br />
<br />
==Historical==<br />
<br />
10. [[Emperor Sujin|Sujin]] 97-30 <br />
<br />
11. [[Emperor Suinin|Suinin]] 29 BC- 70 AD<br />
<br />
12. [[Emperor Keiko|Keiko]] 71 - 130 <br />
<br />
13. [[Emperor Seimu|Seimu]] 131 - 191 <br />
<br />
14. [[Emperor Chuai|Ch&ucirc;ai]] 192 - 200<br />
<br />
: [[Empress Jingu|Jing&ucirc;]] 209 - 269 (Regent) <br />
<br />
15. [[Emperor Ojin|&Ocirc;jin]] 270 - 310 <br />
<br />
16. [[Emperor Nintoku|Nintoku]] 313 - 399 <br />
<br />
17. [[Emperor Richu|Rich&ucirc;]] 400 - 405 <br />
<br />
18. [[Emperor Hanzei|Hanzei]] 406 - 410 <br />
<br />
19. [[Emperor Ingyo|Ingy&ocirc;]] 411 - 453 <br />
<br />
20. [[Emperor Anko|Ank&ocirc;]] 453 - 456 <br />
<br />
21. [[Emperor Yuryaku|Y&ucirc;ryaku]] 456 - 479 <br />
<br />
22. [[Emperor Seinei|Seinei]] 480 - 484 <br />
<br />
23. [[Emperor Kenso|Kenso]] 485 - 487 <br />
<br />
24. [[Emperor Ninken|Ninken]] 488 - 498 <br />
<br />
25. [[Emperor Buretsu|Buretsu]] 498 - 506 <br />
<br />
26. [[Emperor Keitai|Keitai]] 507 - 531 <br />
<br />
27. [[Emperor Ankan|Ankan]] 531 - 536<br />
<br />
===Asuka Period 飛鳥時代===<br />
28. [[Emperor Senka|Senka]] 536 - 539 <br />
<br />
29. [[Emperor Kimmei|Kimmei]] 540 - 571 <br />
<br />
30. [[Emperor Bidatsu|Bidatsu]] 572 - 585 <br />
<br />
31. [[Emperor Yomei|Yomei]] 585 - 587 <br />
<br />
32. [[Emperor Sushun|Sushun]] 588 - 592 <br />
<br />
33. [[Empress Suiko|Suiko]] 593 - 628 <br />
<br />
34. [[Emperor Jomei|Jomei]] 629 - 641 <br />
<br />
35. [[Empress Kogyoku|Kogyoku (Saimei)]] 642 - 644 <br />
<br />
36. [[Emperor Kotoku|Kotoku (Taika)]] 645 - 654 <br />
<br />
37. [[Empress Saimei|Saimei]] 655 - 660 <br />
<br />
38. [[Emperor Tenji|Tenji]] 661 - 670 <br />
<br />
39. [[Emperor Kobun|Kobun]] 671 - 672 <br />
<br />
40. [[Emperor Temmu|Temmu]] 673 - 685 <br />
<br />
41. [[Empress Jito|Jito]] 686 - 696 <br />
<br />
42. [[Emperor Mommu|Mommu]] 697 - 706 <br />
<br />
===Nara Period 奈良時代===<br />
43. Gemmei 707-714 <br />
<br />
44. Genshô(Yoro) 715-723 <br />
<br />
45. Shomu 724-749 <br />
<br />
46. Koken(Shotoku) 749-758 <br />
<br />
47. Junnin 758-763 <br />
<br />
48. Shotoku(Koken) 764-770 <br />
<br />
49. Konin 770-780 <br />
<br />
===Heian Period 平安時代===<br />
50. Kammu 781-806 <br />
<br />
51. Heizei 806-809 <br />
<br />
52. Saga 809-823 <br />
<br />
53. Junna 823-833 <br />
<br />
54. Nimmyo 833-850 <br />
<br />
55. Montoku 850-858 <br />
<br />
56. Seiwa 858-876 <br />
<br />
57. Yozei 877-884 <br />
<br />
58. Koko 884-887 <br />
<br />
59. Uda 887-897 <br />
<br />
60. Daigo 897-930 <br />
<br />
61. Suzaku 930-946 <br />
<br />
62. Murakami 946-967 <br />
<br />
63. Reizei 967-969 <br />
<br />
64. Enyu 969-984 <br />
<br />
65. Kazan 984-986 <br />
<br />
66. Ichijô 986-1011 <br />
<br />
67. Sanjo 1011-1016 <br />
<br />
68. Go-Ichijô 1016-1036 <br />
<br />
69. Go-Suzaku 1036-1045 <br />
<br />
70. Go-Reizei 1045-1068 <br />
<br />
71. Go-Sanjo 1068-1072 <br />
<br />
72. Shirakawa 1072-1086 <br />
<br />
73. Horikawa 1086-1107 <br />
<br />
74. Toba 1107-1123 <br />
<br />
75. Sutoku 1123-1141 <br />
<br />
76. Konoe 1141-1155 <br />
<br />
77. Go-Shirakawa 1155-1158 <br />
<br />
78. Nijô 1158-1165 <br />
<br />
79. Rokujô 1165-1168 <br />
<br />
80. Takakura 1168-1180 <br />
<br />
81. Antoku 1180-1183 <br />
<br />
===Kamakura Period 鎌倉時代===<br />
82. Go-Toba 1183-1198 <br />
<br />
83. Tsuchimikado 1198-1210 <br />
<br />
84. Juntoku 1201-1221 <br />
<br />
85. Chukyo 1221 <br />
<br />
86. Go-Horikawa 1221-1232 <br />
<br />
87. Shijo 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
88. Go-Saga 1232-1242 <br />
<br />
89. Go-Fukakusa 1246-1259 <br />
<br />
90. Kameyama 1259-1274 <br />
<br />
91. Go-Uda 1274-1287 <br />
<br />
92. Fushimi 1288-1298 <br />
<br />
93. Go-Fushimi 1298-1301 <br />
<br />
94. Go-Nijô 1301-1308 <br />
<br />
95. Hanazono 1308-1318 <br />
<br />
===Muromachi Period 室町時代===<br />
96. [[Emperor Go-Daigo|Go-Daigo]] 1318-1339 <br />
<br />
97. Go-Murakami 1339-1367 <br />
<br />
98. Chokei 1368-1383 <br />
<br />
99. Go-Kameyama 1383-1392 <br />
<br />
====Northern Court====<br />
*Kôgon 1331-1333 <br />
*Kômyô 1336-1347 <br />
*Sukô 1348-1351 <br />
*Go-Kôgon 1352-1370 <br />
*Go-En'yû 1371-1372 <br />
<br />
<br />
100. Go-Komatsu 1392-1412 <br />
<br />
101. Shôkô 1412-1427 <br />
<br />
102. Go-Hanazono 1428-1463 <br />
<br />
103. Go-Tsuchimakado 1464-1499 <br />
<br />
104. Go-Kashiwabara 1500-1525 <br />
<br />
105. Go-Nara 1526-1556 <br />
<br />
106. [[Emperor Ogimachi|Ôgimachi]] 1557-1585 <br />
<br />
107. Go-Yôzei 1586-1610<br />
<br />
===Edo Period 江戸時代===<br />
108. Go-Mizunoo 1611-1629 <br />
<br />
109. Meishô 1629-1643 <br />
<br />
110. Go-Kômyô 1643-1653 <br />
<br />
111. Go-Sai 1654-1662 <br />
<br />
112. Reigen 1663-1686 <br />
<br />
113. Higashiyama 1687-1709 <br />
<br />
114. Nakamikado 1709-1735 <br />
<br />
115. Sakuramachi 1735-1746 <br />
<br />
116. Momozono 1747-1761 <br />
<br />
117. Go-Sakuramachi 1762-1770 <br />
<br />
118. Go-Momozono 1770-1778 <br />
<br />
119. Kokaku 1779-1816 <br />
<br />
120. Ninko 1817-1845 <br />
<br />
121. Komei 1846-1867<br />
<br />
===Meiji Period 明治時代===<br />
<br />
122. [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]] 1868-1912<br />
<br />
===Modern Era 現代===<br />
123. Taishô 1912 - 1926<br />
<br />
124. Shôwa 1926 - 1989<br />
<br />
125. Heisei 1989 - Present<br />
<br />
==Emperors and Eras==<br />
{| style="text-align:left" border="0" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''Emperors and Eras'''<br />
! Emperor !! Era !! Kanji !! Start Year <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Kotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taika||大化||645<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hakuchi||白雉||650<br />
|-<br />
|Saimei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||655<br />
|-<br />
|Tenji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||661<br />
|-<br />
|Kobun||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||671<br />
|-<br />
|Temmu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||673<br />
|-<br />
|Jito||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||686<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shuchô||朱鳥||686<br />
|-<br />
|Mommu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||697<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taihô||大宝||701<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiun||慶雲||704<br />
|-<br />
|Gemmei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||707<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôrô||養老||708<br />
|-<br />
|Genshô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Reiki||霊亀||715<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||717<br />
|-<br />
|Shomu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jinki||神亀||724<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô||天平||729<br />
|-<br />
|Koken||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-shôhô||天平勝宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-kanpô||天平感宝||749<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-hôji||天平宝字||757<br />
|-<br />
|Junnin||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||758<br />
|-<br />
|Shotoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||764<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpyô-jingo||天平神護||765<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jingo-keiun||神護景雲||767<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôki||宝亀||770<br />
|-<br />
|Kammu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ô||天応||781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enryaku||延暦||782<br />
|-<br />
|Heizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||806<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daidô||大同||806<br />
|-<br />
|Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||809<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kônin||弘仁||810<br />
|-<br />
|Junna||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||823<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenchô||天長||824<br />
|-<br />
|Nimmyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||833<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôwa||承和||834<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉祥||848<br />
|-<br />
|Montoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||850<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninju||仁寿||851<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Saikô||斉衡||854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennan||天安||857<br />
|-<br />
|Seiwa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||858<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgan||貞観||859<br />
|-<br />
|Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||877<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gangyô||元慶||877<br />
|-<br />
|Koko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||884<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninna||仁和||885<br />
|-<br />
|Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||887<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpyô||寛平||889<br />
|-<br />
|Daigo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||897<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtai||昌泰||898<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Engi||延喜||901<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enchô||延長||923<br />
|-<br />
|Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||930<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhei||承平||931<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengyô||天慶||938<br />
|-<br />
|Murakami||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||946<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô||天正||947<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'yô||天養||957<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôwa||応和||961<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhô||康保||964<br />
|-<br />
|Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||967<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Anna||安和||968<br />
|-<br />
|Enyu||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||969<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenryaku||天暦||970<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'en||天延||973<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||貞元||976<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengen||天元||978<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikan||永観||983<br />
|-<br />
|Kazan||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||984<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanna||寛和||985<br />
|-<br />
|Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||986<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eien||永延||987<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiso||永祚||988<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôryaku||正暦||990<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôtoku||長徳||995<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôhô||長保||999<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kankô||寛弘||1004<br />
|-<br />
|Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1011<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôwa||長和||1012<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Ichijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1016<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kannin||寛仁||1017<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jian||治安||1021<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manju||万寿||1024<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôgen||長元||1028<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Suzaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1036<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôryaku||長暦||1037<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyû||長久||1040<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kantoku||寛徳||1044<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Reizei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1045<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永承||1046<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tengi||天喜||1053<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôhei||康平||1058<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jiryaku||治暦||1065<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sanjo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1068<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyû||延久||1069<br />
|-<br />
|Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1072<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôhô||承保||1074<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôryaku||承暦||1077<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eihô||永保||1081<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôtoku||応徳||1084<br />
|-<br />
|Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1086<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanji||寛治||1087<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kahô||嘉保||1094<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eichô||永長||1096<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôtoku||承徳||1097<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôwa||康和||1099<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôji||長治||1104<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kajô||嘉承||1106<br />
|-<br />
|Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1107<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tennin||天仁||1108<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ten'ei||天永||1110<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyû||永久||1113<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gen'ei||元永||1118<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôan||保安||1120<br />
|-<br />
|Sutoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1123<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenji||天治||1124<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiji||大治||1126<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tentoku||天徳||1131<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôshô||長承||1132<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôen||保延||1135<br />
|-<br />
|Konoe||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiji||永治||1141<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||康治||1142<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tokuji||徳治||1144<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûan||久安||1145<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninpei||仁平||1151<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyûju||久寿||1154<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Shirakawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1155<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôgen||保元||1156<br />
|-<br />
|Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1158<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heiji||平治||1159<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiryaku||永暦||1160<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôhô||応保||1161<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkan||長寛||1163<br />
|-<br />
|Rokujô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiman||永万||1165<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninnan||仁安||1166<br />
|-<br />
|Takakura||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1168<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaô||嘉応||1169<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôan||承安||1171<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Angen||安元||1175<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jishô||治承||1177<br />
|-<br />
|Antoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1180<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Yôwa||養和||1181<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Juei||寿永||1182<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Toba||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1183<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genryaku||元暦||1184<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunji||文治||1185<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenkyû||建久||1190<br />
|-<br />
|Tsuchimikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1198<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôji||正治||1199<br />
|-<br />
|Juntoku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kennin||建仁||1201<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genkyû||元久||1204<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ken'ei||建永||1206<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôgen||承元||1207<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenryaku||建暦||1211<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenpô]||建保||1213<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyû||承久||1219<br />
|-<br />
|Chukyo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Horikawa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1221<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||貞応||1222<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Gennin||元仁||1224<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Karoku||嘉禄||1225<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Antei||安貞||1227<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanki||寛喜||1229<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Saga||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|Shijo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôei||貞永||1232<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpuku||天福||1233<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunryaku||文暦||1234<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Katei||嘉禎||1235<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ryakunin||暦仁||1238<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||En'ô||延応||1239<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ninji||仁治||1240<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kangen||寛元||1243<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fukakusa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1246<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôji||宝治||1247<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenchô||建長||1249<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôgen||康元||1256<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôka||正嘉||1257<br />
|-<br />
|Kameyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôgen||正元||1259<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ô||文応||1260<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôcho||弘長||1261<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'ei||文永||1264<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Uda||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1274<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kenji||建治||1275<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôan||弘安||1278<br />
|-<br />
|Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôô||正応||1288<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Einin||永仁||1293<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Fushimi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1298<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôan||正安||1299<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nijô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1301<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kengen||乾元||1302<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kagen||嘉元||1303<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Wadô||和銅||1306<br />
|-<br />
|Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkei||延慶||1308<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ôchô||応長||1311<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||正和||1312<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunpô||文保||1317<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="4" |'''Nanboku Court Period'''<br />
|-<br />
|Shoko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1412<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôchô||正長||1428<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Hanazono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1428<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eikyô||永享||1429<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kakitsu||嘉吉||1441<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bun'an||文安||1444<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôtoku||宝徳||1449<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôtoku||享徳||1452<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôshô||康正||1455<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôroku||長禄||1457<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanshô||寛正||1460<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Tsuchimakado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1464<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunshô||文正||1466<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ônin||応仁||1467<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunmei||文明||1469<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Chôkyô||長享||1487<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Entoku||延徳||1489<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiô||明応||1492<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kashiwabara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1500<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunki||文亀||1501<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eishô||永正||1504<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Daiei||大永||1521<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Nara||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1526<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôroku||享禄||1528<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenbun||天文||1532<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôji||弘治||1555<br />
|-<br />
|Ogimachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1557<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Eiroku||永禄||1558<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genki||元亀||1570<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenshô]||天承||1573<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Yozei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1586<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunroku||文禄||1592<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keichô||慶長||1596<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Mizunoo||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1611<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genna||元和||1615<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'ei||寛永||1624<br />
|-<br />
|Meishô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1629<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Kômyô||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1643<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôhô||正保||1644<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keian||慶安||1648<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôô||承応||1652<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sai||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1654<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meireki||明暦||1655<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Manji||万治||1658<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanbun||寛文||1661<br />
|-<br />
|Reigen||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1663<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enpô||延宝||1673<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenna||天和||1681<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Jôkyô||貞享||1684<br />
|-<br />
|Higashiyama||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1687<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genroku||元禄||1688<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôei||宝永||1704<br />
|-<br />
|Nakamikado||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1709<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôtoku||正徳||1711<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôhô||享保||1716<br />
|-<br />
|Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1735<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genbun||元文||1736<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kanpô||寛保||1741<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Enkyô||延享||1744<br />
|-<br />
|Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1747<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kan'en||寛延||1748<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Hôreki||宝暦||1751<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Sakuramachi||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1762<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiwa||明和||1764<br />
|-<br />
|Go-Momozono||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1770<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||An'ei||安永||1772<br />
|-<br />
|Kokaku||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1779<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenmei||天明||1781<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kansei||寛政||1789<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kyôwa||享和||1801<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunka||文化||1804<br />
|-<br />
|Ninko||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1817<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunsei||文政||1818<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Tenpô||天保||1830<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kôka||弘化||1844<br />
|-<br />
|Komei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1846<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Kaei||嘉永||1848<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Ansei||安政||1854<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Man'en||万延||1860<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Bunkyû||文久||1861<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Genji||元治||1864<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Keiô||慶応||1865<br />
|-<br />
|Meiji||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1868<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Meiji||明治||1868<br />
|-<br />
|Taisho||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1912<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Taishô||大正||1912<br />
|-<br />
|Showa||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1926<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Shôwa||昭和||1926<br />
|-<br />
|Heisei||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||1989<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;||Heisei||平成||1989<br />
|-<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://homepage1.nifty.com/gyouseinet/tokugawa/keizuKoushitsu.htm Imperial Genealogy (Japanese)]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Emperors]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Sexagenary_cycle&diff=20002Sexagenary cycle2011-02-05T00:23:13Z<p>Bethetsu: /* Table */</p>
<hr />
<div>Sexegenary cycle<br />
<br />
Japanese: 干支 ''' Kan-shi''' or '''E-to'''<br />
<br />
From ancient times China had two series of characters used for numbering (not for numbers!). One is the "ten stems" (jik-kan 十干), the other is the "twelve branches" (jûni-shi 十二支). They were combined to make a cycle of 60, the sexegenary cycle. These series spread over east and south-east Asia and were early taken over by the Japanese as part of the Chinese culture<ref>A mirror in Sumida (隅田) Hachiman-gu Shrine in Hashimoto City, Wakayama Prefecture has an inscription that includes the year in cyclic form, 癸未年 (see below). Scholars are mostly divided about whether this refers to 443 A.D. or to 503 A.D., but in any case, one can say that the cycle was used in Japan to indicate years in the fifth century. (Yoshida Yoshirô, ''The Japanese Calendar'', p. 50 (岡田芳朗,日本の暦、木耳社、[Mokujisha],1972).</ref>. They are still known in Japan, though since the [[Meiji period]] (1868-1912) their use has been very limited. <br />
<br />
==TheTwelve Branches (Jûni-shi 十二支)==<br />
<br />
===general===<br />
The ''shi'' characters, translated variously as "branches," "zodiacal characters," "horary characters," etc. are a series of twelve characters used for various "cyclic" purposes. They were used for indicating direction, time, and, together with the ''kan'', for indicating years and days. Often, though, days and years are referred to by the ''shi'' element only, without the ''kan''. The ''shi'' early on became associated with animals, but the characters for the ''shi'' and the animals are completely distinct.<br />
<br />
===Table===<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|+ '''The Twelve Branches 十二支'''<br />
! No. !! Kanji !! Kun !! On <br />
! colspan="2" | Time <br />
! Direction !! &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| 子||ne||shi||23:00- 1:00||0:00||N (0º)||rat<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| 丑||ushi||chû|| 1:00- 3:00||2:00||30º||ox<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| 寅||tora||in|| 3:00-5:00||4:00||60º||tiger<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
| 卯||u||bô|| 5:00-7:00||6:00||E (90º)||hare<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| 辰||tatsu||shin||7:00-9:00||8:00||120º||dragon<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| 巳||mi||shi||9:00-11:00||10:00||150º||snake<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
| 午||uma||go||11:00-13:00||12:00||S (180º)||horse<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
| 未||hitusji||bi||13:00-15:00||14:00||210º||sheep<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| 申||saru||shin||15:00-17:00||16:00||240º||monkey<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
| 酉||tori||yû||17:00-19:00||18:00||W (270º)||bird<br />
|-<br />
! 11<br />
| 戌||inu||jutsu||19:00-21:00||20:00||300º||dog<br />
|-<br />
! 12<br />
| 亥||i||kai||21:00-23:00||22:00||330º||boar<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="8" style="text-align:left" |Kun are Japanese readings, which are normally used. On are Chinese readings. <br> NE, SE, SW, and NW are 丑寅 (ushi-tora), 辰巳、未申、and 戊亥.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The Ten stems (Jik-kan 十干)==<br />
===General===<br />
The ten ''kan'' characters are the yang (陽) and yin (陰) of the five elements of wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. They were particularly used together with the ''shi'' in the sexedecimal cycle. ''Kô'' through ''bo'' were also sometimes used to designate the night hours from ''inu'' to ''tora''. However, now in Japan their use is mainly limited to indicating rankings, as for academic grades, or for distinguishing parties in a contract (such as, "''Kô'' agrees to pay to ''otsu'' or an agent that ''otsu'' selects..."). In these uses, the Chinese readings are used. The ''kan'' are thus not as cyclical as the ''shi'' are.<br />
<br />
===Table===<br />
Kan tables<br />
{| style="text-align:center" border = "1"<br />
|+ '''The Ten Stems 十干'''<br />
!No !! Kanji !! Kun !! On !! &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
|甲||kinoe||kô||e. wood<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
|乙||kinoto||otsu||y. wood<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
|丙||hinoe||hei||e. fire<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
|丁||hinoto||tei||y. fire<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
|戊||tsuchinoe||bo||e. earth<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
|己||tsuchinoto||ki||y. earth<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
|庚||kanoe||kô||e. metal<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
|辛||kanoto||shin||y. metal<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
|壬||mizunoe||jin||e. water<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
|癸||mizunoto||ki||y. water<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" |Kun is Japanese reading, On is Chinese reading. <br> e. is “elder brother of”; y. is “younger brother of.”<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The sexagesimal (60-character) cycle==<br />
<br />
===general===<br />
When the two cycles are used together, one gets a series of sixty pairs of characters as in the table below. (60 is the least common multiple of 10 and 12.) Note that each ''shi'' is used only with either the "elder brother" ("upper") ''kan'' or with the "youger brother" ("lower") ''kan'': odd-numbered ''shi'' go with odd-number, or upper, ''kan'', and even-numbered ''shi'' go with even-numbered, or lower, ''kan''. This means, for example, that a translation of ''tsuchinoe-tatsu'' as "Earth-Dragon" instead of "Elder Brother of Earth-Dragon" is unambiguous. <br />
<br />
These pairs are normally read using the Japanese readings, as ''kinoe-ne'' for 甲子. <br />
<br />
From the numbers of a given K(an) and S(hi) the P(osition) in the cycle can be computed as follows: if K>=S: P = (K-S)*5+K; if S>K: P = (12+K-S)*5+K. So ''kanoto-u'' (8,4) is the 28th position, and ''hinoe-tatsu'' (3,5) is in the 53rd. One can also search in the table below.<br />
<br />
The cycle was used to indicate [[Japanese calendar|days]], and especially [[year dates]]. For example, 1504 was a ''kinoe-ne'' year. Dating documents by cyclic years was very common, but dating documents by cyclic days was extremely rare in Japan from what I have seen. However, as the cycle repeats every 60 years (or days), the cyclic indication is not enough to determine a date; one has to have some other information. To find the year associated with a ''kan-shi'', use the table below and add or subtract a multiple of sixty as needed, or use the method in the [[year dates]] article.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, when used as a date, the Japanese reading is used for the ''kan-shi''. However when a ''kan-shi'' is used as part of a proper name, the Chinese reading are used. Thus, the [[Boshin War]] (戊辰戦争) took place in [[1868]], a ''tsuchinoe-tatsu'' 戊辰 year, and all high-school baseball players dream of playing in Kôshi-en Stadium (甲子園), which opened the ''kinoe-ne'' 甲子 year of 1924. The Chinese readings used in such cases are those given in the tables above, except that 甲子 is sometimes read ''kasshi'' as well as ''kôshi'' and 乙 can be read as either ''itsu'' or ''otsu'', by ''onbin'' ''it- is-, ot-'' or ''os-''. So we have the 乙丑丸 ''[[Itchû-maru]]'', "The Ship [[1865]]".<br />
<br />
===Table===<br />
<br />
{| border = “1”<br />
|+ '''The 60-Cycle 干支'''<br />
!No. !! Comb. !! Kanji !! Reading!! Sample Year<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
|&nbsp; 1,1||甲子||kinoe ne||1504<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
|&nbsp; 2,2||乙丑||kinoto ushi||1505<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
|&nbsp; 3,3||丙寅||hinoe tora||1506<br />
|-<br />
! 4<br />
|&nbsp; 4,4||丁卯||hinoto u||1507<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
|&nbsp; 5,5||戊辰||tsuchinoe tatsu||1508<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
|&nbsp; 6,6||己巳||tsuchinoto mi||1509<br />
|-<br />
! 7<br />
|&nbsp; 7,7||庚午||kanoe uma||1510<br />
|-<br />
! 8<br />
|&nbsp; 8,8||辛未||kanoto hitusji||1511<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
|&nbsp; 9,9||壬申||mizunoe saru||1512<br />
|-<br />
! 10<br />
|10,10||癸酉||mizunoto tori||1513<br />
|-<br />
! 11<br />
|&nbsp; 1,11||甲戌||kinoe inu||1514<br />
|-<br />
! 12<br />
|&nbsp; 2,12||乙亥||kinoto i||1515<br />
|-<br />
! 13<br />
|&nbsp; 3,1||丙子||hinoe ne||1516<br />
|-<br />
! 14<br />
|&nbsp; 4,2||丁丑||hinoto ushi||1517<br />
|-<br />
! 15<br />
|&nbsp; 5,3||戊寅||tsuchinoe tora||1518<br />
|-<br />
! 16<br />
|&nbsp; 6,4||己卯||tsuchinoto u||1519<br />
|-<br />
! 17<br />
|&nbsp; 7,5||庚辰||kanoe tatsu||1520<br />
|-<br />
! 18<br />
|&nbsp; 8,6||辛巳||kanoto mi||1521<br />
|-<br />
! 19<br />
|&nbsp; 9,7||壬午||mizunoe uma||1522<br />
|-<br />
! 20<br />
|10,8||癸未||mizunoto hitusji||1523<br />
|-<br />
! 21<br />
|&nbsp; 1,9||甲申||kinoe saru||1524<br />
|-<br />
! 22<br />
|&nbsp; 2,10||乙酉||kinoto tori||1525<br />
|-<br />
! 23<br />
|&nbsp; 3,11||丙戌||hinoe inu||1526<br />
|-<br />
! 24<br />
|&nbsp; 4,12||丁亥||hinoto i||1527<br />
|-<br />
! 25<br />
|&nbsp; 5,1||戊子||tsuchinoe ne||1528<br />
|-<br />
! 26<br />
|&nbsp; 6,2||己丑||tsuchinoto ushi||1529<br />
|-<br />
! 27<br />
|&nbsp; 7,3||庚寅||kanoe tora||1530<br />
|-<br />
! 28<br />
|&nbsp; 8,4||辛卯||kanoto u||1531<br />
|-<br />
! 29<br />
|&nbsp; 9,5||壬辰||mizunoe tatsu||1532<br />
|-<br />
! 30<br />
|10,6||癸巳||mizunoto mi||1533<br />
|-<br />
! 31<br />
|&nbsp; 1,7||甲午||kinoe uma||1534<br />
|-<br />
! 32<br />
|&nbsp; 2,8||乙未||kinoto hitusji||1535<br />
|-<br />
! 33<br />
|&nbsp; 3,9||丙申||hinoe saru||1536<br />
|-<br />
! 34<br />
|&nbsp; 4,10||丁酉||hinoto tori||1537<br />
|-<br />
! 35<br />
|&nbsp; 5,11||戊戌||tsuchinoe inu||1538<br />
|-<br />
! 36<br />
|&nbsp; 6,12||己亥||tsuchinoto i||1539<br />
|-<br />
! 37<br />
|&nbsp; 7,1||庚子||kanoe ne||1540<br />
|-<br />
! 38<br />
|&nbsp; 8,2||辛丑||kanoto ushi||1541<br />
|-<br />
! 39<br />
|&nbsp; 9,3||壬寅||mizunoe tora||1542<br />
|-<br />
! 40<br />
|10,4||癸卯||mizunoto u||1543<br />
|-<br />
! 41<br />
|&nbsp; 1,5||甲辰||kinoe tatsu||1544<br />
|-<br />
! 42<br />
|&nbsp; 2,6||乙巳||kinoto mi||1545<br />
|-<br />
! 43<br />
|&nbsp; 3,7||丙午||hinoe uma||1546<br />
|-<br />
! 44<br />
|&nbsp; 4,8||丁未||hinoto hitusji||1547<br />
|-<br />
! 45<br />
|&nbsp; 5,9||戊申||tsuchinoe saru||1548<br />
|-<br />
! 46<br />
|&nbsp; 6,10||己酉||tsuchinoto tori||1549<br />
|-<br />
! 47<br />
|&nbsp; 7,11||庚戌||kanoe inu||1550<br />
|-<br />
! 48<br />
|&nbsp; 8,12||辛亥||kanoto i||1551<br />
|-<br />
! 49<br />
|&nbsp; 9,1||壬子||mizunoe ne||1552<br />
|-<br />
! 50<br />
|10,2||癸丑||mizunoto ushi||1553<br />
|-<br />
! 51<br />
|&nbsp; 1,3||甲寅||kinoe tora||1554<br />
|-<br />
! 52<br />
|&nbsp; 2,4||乙卯||kinoto u||1555<br />
|-<br />
! 53<br />
|&nbsp; 3,5||丙辰||hinoe tatsu||1556<br />
|-<br />
! 54<br />
|&nbsp; 4,6||丁巳||hinoto mi||1557<br />
|-<br />
! 55<br />
|&nbsp; 5,7||戊午||tsuchinoe uma||1558<br />
|-<br />
! 56<br />
|&nbsp; 6,8||己未||tsuchinoto hitusji||1559<br />
|-<br />
! 57<br />
|&nbsp; 7,9||庚申||kanoe saru||1560<br />
|-<br />
! 58<br />
|&nbsp; 8,10||辛酉||kanoto tori||1561<br />
|-<br />
! 59<br />
|&nbsp; 9,11||壬戌||mizunoe inu||1562<br />
|-<br />
! 60<br />
|10,12||癸亥||mizunoto i||1563<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
*[[Kojien Dictionary|''Kôjien Dictionary'']]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Resource Articles]]</div>Bethetsuhttp://samurai-archives.com/w/index.php?title=Ii_Naomasa&diff=19986Ii Naomasa2011-01-29T03:59:45Z<p>Bethetsu: 直正 ー>直政</p>
<hr />
<div>* ''Born: [[1561]]''<br />
* ''Died: [[1602]]''<br />
* ''Title: Hyôbu-Shoyu''<br />
* ''Japanese: [[井伊 (Ii)|井伊]] 直政 ''(Ii Naomasa)''<br />
<br />
<br />
Naomasa was born in Hôda village in the Inasa district of Tôtômi province and was first known as Toramatsu. He was the only son of [[Ii Naochika]], an [[Imagawa clan|Imagawa]] vassal. Naomasa’s mother was a daughter of [[Okuyama Chikatomo]]. Naomasa’s grandfather, [[Ii Naomori|Ii ''Shinano no kami'' Naomori]] ([[1506]]?-[[1600]]), had first contested the Imagawa’s encroachment into Totomi but later accepted their rule. He was killed at the [[Battle of Okehazama]] along with his lord, [[Imagawa Yoshimoto]]. <br />
<br />
In [[1562]], Naochika, lord of [[Iidani castle]], came to be suspected of treason by [[Imagawa Ujizane]], not the first or the last Imagawa retainer to be thus condemned by Imagawa Yoshimoto’s paranoid and inept successor. Ujizane dispatched the [[Ashina clan|Ashina]] to destroy him in 1562 and this was carried out, although the young Naomasa was hidden away and avoided his father’s fate. He entered the service of [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who had taken Totomi in [[1569]], and at Tanaka ([[1578]]) quickly distinguished himself as a brave fighter. Lord now of his family’s traditional residence, Iidani, Naomasa commanded 3,000 men at the [[Battle of Nagakute]] ([[1584]]) and did great damage to the Ikeda troops he faced there with gunnery fire. Following the Tokugawa transfer to the Kanto in [[1590]], Naomasa, who rose in rank rapidly despite his relative youth, was given [[Minowa castle]] in [[Kozuke province|Kôzuke province]], worth 12,000 koku. At the start of the [[Sekigahara Campaign]], he participated in the attack on [[Gifu castle]] and at the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] commanded 3,600 men. In that great struggle he acted as an escort to Ieyasu's son Tadayoshi but managed to draw first blood, outpacing the troops of [[Fukushima Masanori]] and attacking [[Ukita Hideie|Ukita Hideie's]] contingent. At the end of the fighting he was shot and wounded by a [[Shimazu clan|Shimazu]] sniper as he was attempting to run down the retreating Shimazu contingent. He was therefore unable to personally see to Ieyasu’s instructions that [[Yamauchi Kazutoyo]] be assisted in quelling the erstwhile [[Chosokabe clan|Chosokabe]] samurai of [[Tosa province]], instead sending one of his retainers ([[Suzuki Hyoe]]). <br />
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Naomasa was afterwards awarded Sawayama in Ômi Province (worth some 180,000 koku) but died in [[1602]], evidently as a result of his Sekigahara wound. He was noted for dressing his men in red armor, and his contingent was often known as Ii's 'Red Devils' for its fighting spirit (Ii himself was sometimes called 'Akaoni', or Red Devil/Ogre). This is said to have been adopted after the Tokugawa took over the Takeda lands and Ieyasu inquired into the tactics [[Takeda Shingen]] had employed on the battlefield - which included allowing [[Yamagata Masakage]] to dress his men in red for psychological effect. Naomasa was considered one of Ieyasu's great captains and was highly regarded by his master. <br />
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Naomasa was succeeded by his eldest son [[Ii Naotsugu|Naotsugu]], (also known as Ii Naokatsu).<br />
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==References==<br />
* Initial text from [http://www.samurai-archives.com Samurai-Archives.com] FWSeal & CEWest, 2005<br />
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[[Category:Samurai]][[Category:Sengoku Period]]</div>Bethetsu